Philosophy 101: Key Concepts, Thinkers, and Ethical Theories

Phil

Love of

Sophia

Wisdom

Metaphysics

Study of existence and reality

Epistemology

Study of theory of knowledge; ways of knowing

Ethics

Study of rights and wrongs in human purpose

Aesthetics

Study of art and beauty

Logic

Study of rules of valid reasoning

Socrates

Best known for his association with the Socratic method of question and answer.

Socrates' Philosophy

Unexamined life is not worth living, having self-awareness; don't get caught in routine.

Ptahhotep

First philosopher who emphasized moderation, kindness, justice, and honesty towards everyone equally.

Ma'at

Goddess of truth, justice, harmony, portrayed with a feather on her head.

Ma'at's Principle

Formed to meet complex needs of the Egyptian state that embraced diverse people with conflicting interests.

Aristotle

Teleologist who believed everyone has a final cause.

Telos

A purpose, goal, end, or true final function of an object.

Eudaimonia

The ultimate good, meaning 'flourishing'.

Barometer Story

A story about a student who answered a physics question correctly but did not apply physics concepts.

Hard Determinism

All our thoughts, actions, and events are predetermined, and free will is not possible.

Free Will

The illusion of being able to make decisions and act freely.

Soft Determinism

The freedom to act according to individual desire or intention; action caused by the actor.

Compatibilism

The idea that free will is compatible with hard determinism.

Incompatibilism

The idea that free will is incompatible with hard determinism.

Dilemma

When a difficult decision must be made between at least two options that are both undesirable.

Fatalism

The belief that all events are pre-determined and therefore inevitable.

Libertarianism

The claim that determinism itself is false and free will is possible.

Ethical Egoism

You should make decisions that are within your best interest.

Psychological Egoism

You have no choice but to make decisions within your best interest.

Eros

Romantic love.

Philia

Friendship love.

Storge

Family love.

Mania

Madness.

Philautia

Self love.

Plato

Known for platonic love, which saw love as more than romantic love.

Deism

The belief that a deity/God created the universe but is no longer actively involved.

Theism

The belief that a deity/God created the universe and is still actively involved.

Atheism

Absence in the belief in a deity/God.

Euthyphro Dilemma

Questions whether God commands good because it is good or because it is what God commands.

Theory of Natural Law

The world has a rational order, with values and purposes built into its very nature.

Problem of Evil

Evil represents the distortion of something that is inherently valuable, not created by God.

Theodicy

A response to the problem of evil explaining why a God would allow evil in our lives.

Hedonism

States that all and only pleasure is intrinsically valuable.

Agnosticism

Belief that nothing can be known about whether God/gods exist.

Cultural Relativism

The belief that moral customs differ among cultures.

Utilitarianism

Ethical theory that judges rightness of an action by its consequences.

Jeremy Bentham

Founder of classical utilitarianism who believed actions should be judged by the happiness they produce.

John Stuart Mill

Refined Bentham's utilitarianism by distinguishing between 'higher' and 'lower' pleasures.

Act Utilitarianism

Judges every action by whether it produces maximum happiness.

Rule Utilitarianism

Judges every action by whether it generally promotes the greatest good.

The Golden Rule

States 'do unto others as you would have them do unto you'.

Cons of the Golden Rule

Assuming personal preferences are universal and oversimplifying complex moral situations.

Lifeboat Ethics

Case against helping the poor, questioning whether the wealthy should rescue the drowning poor.

Infinite Regression

A sequence of reasoning or justification that can never come to an end.

Deontology

Ethical theory that judges the morality of actions based on whether they follow rules, duties, or principles.

Categorical Imperative

Deciding whether an action is right or wrong by evaluating what would happen if everyone acted the same way.

Socratic Method

Best known for his association with the Socratic method of question and answer

Unexamined Life

Is not worth living, having self-awareness; don't get caught in routine

Omnipotence

God would be powerful enough to eliminate all evil

Omnibenevolence

God would desire to eliminate all evil

Ethical Relativism

What a society or group believes to be right is genuinely right for that group, no universal standards

Ethical Absolutism

There is one eternal and true moral code valid for all humans, independent of culture or time

Prima Facie Duties

Moral obligations that are binding 'at first sight' but may be overridden by stronger duties depending on the specific situation

Intrinsic Value

A value has to do with whether it is valuable for its own sake or valuable for the sake of something good

Extrinsic Value

Is it valuable for the sake of something else, it is a means to an end

Deductive Reasoning

Guarantees the truth of its conclusion if the premise is true

Critical Thinking

The disciplined process of evaluating arguments and evidence objectively

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to seek or interpret information that confirms existing beliefs

Anchoring Bias

Relying too heavily on the first piece of information encountered

Availability Heuristic

Overestimating the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind

Bandwagon Effect

Adopting beliefs because others hold them

Overconfidence Bias

Overestimating your own knowledge or ability