Perception, Communication, and Interpersonal Relationships: Key Concepts and Theories

Perception

A cognitive process through which we interpret our experiences to come to unique understandings.

Communication Processing

Involves gathering, organizing, and evaluating the information we receive.

The Perception Process

Involves selecting information, organizing perceptions, interpreting perceptions, and improving perceptions.

Schemas

Mental structures that put together related bits of information.

Mindlessness

Passive information processing, the opposite of mindfulness.

Selective perception

Receiving only the information we want.

Distorted perception

Distorting events based on vivid information.

Attributions

Judgments used to explain behaviors.

Fundamental attribution error

Overemphasizing internal causes and underestimating external causes of others' behaviors.

Self-serving bias

Attributing personal success to internal factors.

Self-concept

Who you think you are, influenced by your thoughts, actions, abilities, values, goals, and ideals.

Self-esteem

How you feel about yourself; a set of attitudes about your own emotions, thoughts, abilities, skills, behavior, and beliefs.

Self-efficacy

Your ability to predict actual success based on your self-concept and self-esteem.

Self-actualization

Feelings and thoughts resulting from successfully negotiating a communication situation.

Self-adequacy

Assessing your communication competence as sufficient or acceptable.

Self-denigration

A negative assessment (self-criticism) about a communication experience.

Self-presentation

Intentional communication to show elements of self for strategic purposes.

Self-disclosure

Voluntarily revealing personal information to others that is not easily known to them.

Narrow perspective

Being unaware of, or insensitive toward, the needs and values of others.

Stereotyping

Fitting others into an existing schema without adjusting the schema appropriately.

Prejudice

Feelings of unkindness and ill will toward particular groups, usually based on negative stereotypes and feelings of superiority.

Mediated Communication

Communication where technology delivers messages between sources and receivers.

Digital Communication

Using electronic networks to transmit digital data.

Synchronicity of Messages

Different communication channels support different levels of synchronicity.

Media Richness

The degree of visual, vocal, and personality cues possible, along with opportunities for feedback.

Crowdsourcing

Inviting large numbers of people to address an issue via the internet.

Language

The system of symbols we use to think about and communicate experiences and feelings.

Semantics

The relationship among symbols, objects, people, and concepts.

Pragmatics

The ability to use a culture's symbol systems appropriately.

Nonverbal Communication

The process of intentionally or unintentionally signaling meaning through behavior other than words.

Kinesics

The use of gestures and body movements.

Facial Expressions

Convey emotions.

Emotional intelligence

The ability to manage and identify emotions.

Paralanguage

Vocalized sounds that accompany words, including pitch, tone, volume, pauses, vocal quality, rhythm, and rate.

Back-channel cues

Sounds like 'ah,' 'um,' 'uh.'

Physical Appearance

Conveyed through attractiveness and artifacts (accessories).

Artifacts

Convey a variety of messages.

Proxemics

The study of the use of space.

Territoriality

The claiming of an area.

Haptics

Touch.

Functional touch

Professional touch.

Social touch

Polite touch.

Friendship touch

Warmth touch.

Love touch

Intimacy touch.

Chronemics

The ways people perceive and value time, structure time, and react to time.

Time orientation

Your personal association with the use of time.

Culture

A learned system of thought and behavior belonging to and typifying a relatively large group of people.

Worldview

The framework through which you interpret the world and people in it.

Intercultural communication

Communication between people from different cultures who have different worldviews.

High-Context Culture

Use contextual cues to interpret meaning and send subtle messages.

Low-Context Culture

Use direct language and rely less on situational factors.

Collectivist orientation

Perceive themselves as group members; communicate from that perspective.

Individualistic orientation

Value individuality; communicate autonomy and privacy; downplay emotions.

High Uncertainty Avoidance

Adapt behavior to avoid risk; use formal rules to communicate.

Low Uncertainty Avoidance

Higher tolerance for ambiguity; use fewer formal rules.

Masculine culture

Value assertiveness, achievement, ambition, and competitiveness.

Feminine culture

Value nurturance, relationships, and quality of life.

High Power Distance

People with less power accept a lower position as a basic fact of life.

Low Power Distance

Tolerate less difference in power; communicate with those higher in status with less anxiety.

Polychronistic time

Fluid approach to time; deal with various projects and people simultaneously.

Monochronistic time

Time conscious; time is a valuable resource.

Cocultures

Members share some of the general culture's system of thought and behavior but have distinct unifying characteristics.

Social Identity Theory

Includes your personal identity and your social identity from group memberships.

Intergroup communication

How communication occurs within and between groups and affects relationships.

Anxiety in intercultural communication

Fear or unease in intercultural experiences.

Ethnocentrism

The belief in the superiority of your own culture or group, viewing other cultures through your own lens.

Discrimination

Behavior toward a person or group based solely on their membership in a particular group.

Mindfulness

Being 'fully present' in the awareness of the cultural and intergroup aspects of the situation.

Intercultural sensitivity

Openness to other cultures and a willingness to understand and appreciate different cultural practices.

Active listening

Requires active participation and making choices about selecting, attending, etc.

Passive listening

Failing to make active choices about selecting, attending, and so on.

Listening fidelity

Matching the listener's thoughts with those of the message producer; involves active listening.

Relational listening

Understanding and appreciating how another person feels.

Analytical listening

Receiving and organizing all information before making a judgment.

Task-oriented listening

Focusing on the task at hand.

Critical listening

Evaluating information and finding any inconsistencies or errors.

Defensive listening

Arguing, sometimes aggressively, without fully listening.

Biased listening

Selecting which messages to attend to while disregarding others.

Self-absorbed listening

Hearing only information useful for achieving your own goals.

Interpersonal communication

The exchange of verbal and nonverbal messages between people who build relationships, share meanings, and accomplish social goals.

Relational network

A web of relationships that connects individuals to one another.

Family relationships

Bound by ties of blood, contract, and commitment to care for one another.

Friendships

Close, caring relationship perceived as mutually satisfying and beneficial.

Social relationships

Functional within a specific context and less intimate than friendship.

Romantic relationships

Involve love (deep affection) and intimacy (closeness and understanding).

Online relationships

Hyperpersonal communication is online communication that is even more personal and intimate than face-to-face.

Social Exchange Theory

Balances the advantages (rewards) and disadvantages (costs) of a relationship.

Uncertainty Reduction Theory

When initially meeting, people try to decrease uncertainty about each other.

Social Penetration Theory (SPT)

Explains how relationships move from superficial levels to greater intimacy.

Communication Privacy Management Theory (CPM)

People believe they own information about themselves and decide whether to disclose or protect it.

Stages of a Relationship

Includes initiating, exploratory, intensification, stable, declining, termination, and reconciliation stages.