Cognition, Language, and Intelligence: Key Concepts and Theories

Cognition

The mental process of acquiring, organizing, and using knowledge.

Concept

A mental category used to group objects, events, and ideas.

Natural Concept

A concept formed through direct experience.

Artificial Concept

A concept defined by specific rules or characteristics.

Prototype

The best or most typical example of a concept.

Schema

A mental framework that organizes information.

Event Schema

A cognitive script for how events typically unfold.

Role Schema

Expectations about how certain people in specific roles should behave.

Language

A communication system that uses words and rules to express meaning.

Lexicon

A person's vocabulary.

Semantics

The meaning of words and phrases.

Phoneme

The smallest unit of sound in a language.

Morpheme

The smallest unit of meaning in a language.

Grammar

The set of rules that guide language use.

Language Development Stage: Babbling

Infants produce repetitive syllables (4-6 months).

Language Development Stage: One-Word Stage

Single words used for entire ideas (12-18 months).

Language Development Stage: Two-Word Stage

Simple combinations ("want cookie") (18-24 months).

Mental Set

Tendency to solve problems using strategies that worked before.

Functional Fixedness

Inability to see new uses for familiar objects.

Confirmation Bias

Focusing on information that confirms beliefs.

Anchoring Bias

Relying heavily on the first piece of information given.

Hindsight Bias

Believing an event was predictable after it happened.

Representative Bias

Judging based on similarity to a prototype instead of logic.

Algorithm

A step-by-step problem-solving formula guaranteeing a solution.

Raymond Cattell

Psychologist who proposed fluid and crystallized intelligence.

Fluid Intelligence

Ability to solve new problems and think abstractly.

Crystallized Intelligence

Knowledge acquired through experience and education.

Robert Sternberg

Proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence.

Triarchic Theory

Intelligence consists of analytical, creative, and practical components.

Creative Intelligence

Ability to generate new ideas and be inventive.

Howard Gardner

Developed the multiple intelligences theory.

Multiple Intelligences

Eight types, including linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic.

Conscious Cognition

Thought processes you are aware of.

Unconscious Cognition

Mental activity occurring without awareness.

Integrated Cognition

Interaction between conscious and unconscious thinking.

Influences on Cognition

Culture, environment, language, and social factors.

Thoughts

Mental representations formed from knowledge, memories, and experiences.

Dyslexia

Learning disorder involving difficulty reading due to phonological processing problems.

Flynn Effect

Rise in average IQ scores over decades.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts used when quick decisions are needed.

Conditions for Heuristic Use

Time pressure, limited information, or cognitive overload.

Effects of Poverty on Intelligence Testing

Lower access to resources can affect test performance.

Minnesota Twins Study

Research showing strong genetic influences on intelligence.

Analytical Intelligence

Academic problem-solving ability.

Practical Intelligence

Street smarts and real-world problem solving.

Linguistic Intelligence

Skill with language and communication.

Interpersonal Intelligence

Ability to understand others' emotions and intentions.

Intrapersonal Intelligence

Understanding one's own emotions and motivations.

Cognitive Bias

A systematic error in thinking affecting decisions.

Problem Solving

The process of finding solutions to difficult or complex issues.

Consciousness

Awareness of internal and external experiences.

Models of Consciousness

Theoretical descriptions of how awareness works.

Biological Rhythms

Regular cycles of bodily processes.

Circadian Rhythm

24-hour biological cycle regulating sleep, body temp, hormones.

Sleep

A natural state of rest involving reduced awareness.

Homeostasis

Body's tendency to maintain balance.

Pineal Gland

Brain structure that releases melatonin.

Melatonin

Hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycles.

Chronotype

Individual preference for being a night owl or morning person.

Evolutionary Sleep Theory

Sleep evolved for protection and energy conservation.

Sleep Debt

Chronic lack of sufficient sleep.

Jet Lag

Temporary circadian misalignment due to travel.

NREM Stage 1

Light sleep; alpha → theta waves.

NREM Stage 2

Deeper sleep; sleep spindles and K-complexes.

NREM Stage 3/4

Deep sleep; delta wave activity.

REM Sleep

Rapid eye movement, dreaming, brain activity similar to wakefulness.

Manifest Content (Freud)

Actual storyline of a dream.

Latent Content (Freud)

Hidden symbolic meaning of a dream.

Lucid Dream

Dream in which the dreamer is aware they're dreaming.

Rosalind Cartwright

Proposed dreams reflect important life events.

John Hobson

Proposed Activation-Synthesis model.

Protoconsciousness Theory

Dreams help develop the brain, especially in infancy.

Parasomnias

Disorders involving abnormal behaviors during sleep.

Sleepwalking (Somnambulism)

Walking or performing actions while asleep.

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

Muscle paralysis fails; person acts out dreams.

Sleep Apnea

Breathing repeatedly stops during sleep.

Obstructive Sleep Apnea

Airway blocked.

Central Sleep Apnea

Brain fails to signal breathing muscles.

Narcolepsy

Sudden sleep attacks and muscle weakness (cataplexy).

SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome)

Unexpected infant death; associated risk factors include premature birth and smoking exposure.

Internal Stimuli

Thoughts, emotions, internal sensations.

External Stimuli

Environmental information from senses.

Physical Dependence

Body becomes adapted to a drug; withdrawal occurs.

Tolerance

Needing more of a substance to achieve the same effect.

Psychological Dependence

Emotional need for a drug.

Alcohol

Depressant that slows the central nervous system.

Cocaine

Stimulant that increases energy, alertness, and dopamine levels.

Crack Cocaine Efficacy

Strong, fast-acting form of cocaine with intense effects.

Opioids

Drugs that reduce pain and produce euphoria.

Synthetic Opioids

Lab-made opioids (e.g., fentanyl).

Euphoric High

Intense pleasure and well-being caused by drug use.

Hallucinogens

Drugs that alter perceptions and cause sensory distortions.

Dissociative Drugs

Drugs that cause detachment from reality.

Dissociative Theory of Hypnosis

Hypnosis causes a split in consciousness.

Alpha Waves

Relaxed, awake brain activity.

Theta Waves

Light sleep brain waves.

Delta Waves

Deep sleep brain waves.

K-Complex

High-amplitude brain wave in NREM 2 sleep.

Sleep Spindle

Burst of brain activity during NREM 2.

Hypnosis

State of focused attention and increased suggestibility.