America 1920-1973: Opportunity and Inequality

The First World War

Factor to economic boom in America 1920s

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When war broke out in 1914, the USA stayed out of it as part of a policy known as isolationism. Staying out of the war for the first two years


allowed America to prosper financially.

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America loaned money to Britain and its allies that was used to buy food, supplies and weapons. This created many jobs in America and lots of business people rich.

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When America eventually entered the war the war had a far smaller impact on them. By the end, they had become producer of the highest percentage of the world's basic goods.

Growing industries and mass
production

Factor to economic boom in America 1920s

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Car production used 20% of America's steel, 65% of its leather and over 75% of its rubber and glass.

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More jobs were created. Industries started to use the assembly line to produce items quickly. This became known as mass production. Due to this good became cheaper

New ways to buy and sell

Factor to economic boom in America 1920s

Effective advertsing campaigns were used to sell products. Billboards, newspapers and magazines urged people to but the latest gadget.

People took advantage of 'buy now, pay later' schemes. This was also called hire-purchase plan. Six out of ten cars were bought this way.

Republican government policies

Factor to economic boom in America 1920s

Led by three Republican Presidents during the 1920s, namely Warren
Harding, Calvin Coolidge and Herbert Hoover.

Policy of Republican Presidents was the government should leave economy alone – adopted a laissez-faire (free market) policy. This meant that big businesses were free to expand without being held back by government.

In 1922 Harding, introduced the Fordney- McCumber Tariff Act which imposed a tax on goods from foreign countries. This made foreign goods more expensive than domestic goods, so encouraged Americans to buy American goods. The name for this policy was protectionism.

Hoover believed in laissez-faire, but also in rugged individualism. This meant people should not depend on government for help - they should solve their own problems by working harder.

The consumer society

Factor to economic boom in America 1920s

In 1916, only 15% of American homes had electricity, But by 1927 70% had it, Factories ran by it, the amount consumed doubled in the 1920s.
It lead to a range of domestic goods like vacuums, fridges, etc.

This meant workers began to spend their money on ultra-modern electicity powered gadgets such as vacuum cleaners, radios, and toasters. Huge demand for these products created jobs in factories.

Henry Ford

The motor industry led to a boom in other related industries:

Ford developed assembly line and conveyor belt to speed up motor production.

Ford's River Rouge plant in Detroit, became largest factory in the world.
Ford produced standard car model, the Model T Ford.
A new Model T Ford cost less than $300 in the mid-1920s.
By 1929, more than 26 million cars were registered in the USA.

During the 1920s, about $1 billion a year was spent on the construction of a national network of highways.

Automobile industry caused other industries such as steel, rubber, leather and paint to grow rapidly.

Mass-produced, cheap so most could afford them.
Created demand for materials so industry boomed.
Henry Ford sold a Model T every 10 seconds in the 1920s.
Mass production needed large factories, assembly lines and workers doing one job only so unskilled workers

The model T or "Tin Lizzie"

Ford made just one type of car – It was mass-produced. Cost were kept low because it had one engine size and one colour (black)

As production got faster, the price of the car fell. Costing nearly $800 in 1911, by 1928 it was only $295. As a result, 15 million people bought Model T Fords between 1911 and 1929.

Due to the motor industry, jobs were created in not only factories that made them but also industries that supplied the materials. There were also huge jobs in building roads, highways and oil refineries.

This car changed the motor industry forever. It caught the imagination of the public who were desperate for new gadgets. By 1926, there were
nearly 20 million cars on America’s roads, and one in two was a Ford.

Farmer's

Losers of the boom

Farmers were producing too many crops and couldn’t sell them. So, prices fell and farmers had to borrow money from the banks to be able to survive.

More of them got into debt until they eventually had to sell their farms and leave.

Many left to go wandering around America looking for any kind of work – these wanderers were called hobos.

By 1928 half of all USA farmers were living in poverty. Since prices were so low, 600,000 farmers lost their farms in 1924 alone.

Traditional industries

losers of the boom

The traditional industries failed to respond to the new mass-production methods of the 1920s, unlike the Ford company that was making a good profit and could pay impressive wages.

Also, following a reduction in the powers of Labour Unions (Trade Unions), the workers were not able to be able to claim better wages and working conditions in the old industries.

COAL:
prices fell and thousands had to be made redundant because the industry was producing too much coal and not enough people wanted to buy it.

SHIP BUILDING:
made thousands redundant due to a reduction in the demand for new ships.

COTTON:
New synthetic fibres were being developed, such as rayon. This became a very popular substitute to cotton. It was possible to produce rayon in factories with fewer workers.

African - Americans

Losers of the boom

Suffered economically, especially in southern states, where segregation was in effect.

Ancestors of the AA's in the south had been slaves, the majority worked on small farms owned by white landlords. They were labourers or sharecroppers and they lived in immense poverty.

Segregation in southern states (Alabama, Louisiana and Mississippi) made situation of AA even worse. White and black people lived separately – Different education, transport and housing facilities.

Not allowed to use same toilets and water wells. Anyone who tried to improve the rights of AA were challenged and threatened by KKK. Thousands of AA moved to northern cities like New York and Chicago to look for work, but when they got there they had to live in "ghettoes"

Native Americans

Losers of the boom

Their land had been seized by mining companies and their traditional way of life had disappeared when they had been forced to move to reservations. The soil on these reservations was often so poor that it impossible to grow crops.

Immigrants

Losers of the boom

Many immigrants had not been educated and were willing to work in any kind of job for very low wages. Because of this, they endured more
and more prejudice. *

Inequalities of wealth

Loser of the boom

The richest 5% earned 33% of all the money in America. Tax records from the US government showed that 21 individuals with an annual income of over $1 million in 1921, 75 in 1924 and 207 in 1926. There were an estimated 15,000 US millionaires by 1927. In contrast, 6 million families had an income of less than $1000 a year.

Sport

Changes to the entertainment industry:

Organised sports developed, especially baseball, boxing and golf. Stadiums such as the Yankee Stadium (1923) were prospering, and Madison Square Garden was rebuilt in 1925 to hold sporting events

Events could be broadcast live across the US on the radio. The programmes provided live commentary and descriptions of various sporting events as they happened. 60 million radio listeners heard the coverage of the 1927 World Heavyweight Boxing title fight. The effect of this was to generate huge enthusiasm about sport and increase the popularity of the radio.

Sports became a profitable business, attracting more people. Coke was the 1st company to sponsor the Olympic Games in 1928.

Babe Ruth, was undoubtedly the sports star of the 1920s. Nickname was Bambino or The Sultan of Swat. Ruth was by far the best baseball player of his time. He earned over $2,000,000 during his career.

Cinema

Changes to the entertainment industry:

Influenced people in many ways; In terms of fashion and the way people behaved. During early 1920s, every movie was silent. Cinemas used to employ musicians to play the instruments during films

Major movie companies in Hollywood during this period were Paramount, Warner Brothers and MGM. By marketing their movies extensively – cowboy movies, detective stories, comedies and romantic movies – succeeded in generating a huge interest in the movie stars.

The stars also contributed to the increase in the popularity of the cinema. Charlie Chaplin was a very influential figure and was one of the founders of the United Artists film company with Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks in 1919. He was also a famous actor, starring in
films such as The Tramp (1915

women like Clara Bow, were the Hollywood stars that had the most influence on society. She played the part of a flapper in a number of films, and influenced many young girls to behave in the same way. She was the most popular actress in 1928 and 1929.

Talkies

Changes to the entertainment industry:

In 1927 an average of 60 million Americans went to the cinema on a weekly basis. This increased to 110 million by 1929. The increase was
due to the development of audio films in 1927, with Al Jolson starring in The Jazz Singer (1927) marking the beginning of ‘talkies’.

Increase was also down to Hollywood's success in producing 500 films per year. The 1920s was also the era of the cartoon, Mickey Mouse (1928) gaining popularity among people of all ages.

The Hays Code was in 1930, scenes of nudity and dancing of a sexual nature were prohibited, a kiss could last for no more than 7 metres of film, adultery was not to be portrayed in a good light, clergymen were not to be ridiculed and films should condemn killing. Some people, especially religious people, were very concerned about a lack of morals and influence of the films on young people.

Jazz

Changes to the entertainment industry:

Jazz originated from the southern states of the USA, from the blues and ragtime music of the black people. Young people had had enough of their parents’ old dances, e.g. the waltz. Jazz was much more rhythmic and easy to dance to. This led to young people smoking, drinking and, rebelling.

College students, especially, were willing to challenge their parents' values and lifestyle. Several black musicians became very famous, including Louis Armstrong and Bessie Smith, The Empress of the Blues.

Racism was still a major problem. Before the cinema became popular during the 1920s, the radio was the main medium of entertainment in America. By the end of the 1920s, 50 million people had a radio
set. Not everyone could read, so the radio became a very important means of communicating news and information to the people. As popularity of jazz increased, more people bought radios, records and gramophones so that they could listen to jazz any time they wanted to.

People could listen to their favourite music, especially if it was not possible for them to travel to a concert.

Impact of the WW1 on women

Before the war, girls were expected to behave modestly and wear long dresses. When they went out, they had to be accompanied by an older woman, a married woman or a chaperone.

It was unacceptable for a woman to smoke in public.

Women were employed in jobs that were traditionally associated with women EG: teachers , secretaries, nursing. During the war, women started to be employed in different types of jobs EG: factory work and mechanics. replacing men who had gone to fight in war.

Organisations such as the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) had been fighting for decades to get the vote for women. As women had contributed so much to the war effort, it was difficult to refuse their demands for political equality. As a result, the Nineteenth Amendment to the constitution became law in 1920, giving women the right to vote.

There was a change as far as work was concerned too, with an increase of 25% of women working during the 1920s. By 1929, 10.6 million women were working.

independent women of middle classes and above had more money to spend. Because of this, advertising companies started targeting women in campaigns to encourage them to buy their new products.

Changing attitudes in social etiquette for women

Women started smoking in public, It became acceptable for women to drive cars and take part in energetic sports.

Young women of the 1920s were referred to as flappers, Hollywood films of the period characterised them, and as a result, their behaviour and dress sense was imitated by millions around the world.

In 1919 women’s' skirts were six inches above ground level, but by 1927 the hems of skirts were up to knee-level. Young women rebelled against the old-fashioned clothes of their mothers’ era.The corset went out of fashion, and it became all the rage for women to cut their hair in a bob and wear a lot of make-up and jewellery.

One famous flapper was Joan Crawford. She started her career as a dancer on Broadway before moving to Hollywood. She starred in films such as Paris (1926) in which she became famous for her flapper style. Young girls admired and copied her style. In 1929, she married Douglas Fairbanks Jr, son of Douglas Fairbanks (Actor), which proved her important status in society.


Jazz Clubs played a crucial role in allowing flappers to express themselves. This is where they could smoke and dance. They also drank illegal alcohol in the speakeasies. Instead of dancing the waltz that was popular in the period before the war, people started to enjoy more daring dances such as the Shimmy and the Bunny Hug. Petting Parties began where the flappers would kiss men in public.

flappers had their own slang too. "I have to go see a man about a dog" was slang for going to buy whisky, and a 'handcuff' or 'manacle' was an
engagement or wedding ring.

Not every girl enjoyed the flappers' way of life. Poor women could not afford the new fashions and they didn't have the time to go out and enjoy social events. Black women could not benefit from the changing lifestyle either.

Women in the ‘Bible Belt’ (southern states) did not adopt the new way of life. Also, many older women were outraged and some formed the Anti-Flirt Club.

Prohibition

In 1920 to 1933, the 18th Amendment was passed making manufacture and sale of alcohol illegal. Many people in this time of continued to drink and gangsters made money from illegal liquor.

Why was prohibition introduced?

NATIONAL MOOD:
America entered the war in 1917 the national mood also turned against drinking alcohol. The Anti Saloon League argued that drinking alcohol was damaging American society.

PRACTICAL:
a ban on alcohol would boost supplies of important grains like barley.

RELIGIOUS:
the consumption of alcohol went against God's will.

MORAL:
many agreed that it was wrong for some Americans to enjoy alcohol while the country's young men were at war

How did Prohibition lead to crime?

Prohibition created an enormous public demand for illegal alcohol. Gang leaders such as Al Capone and Bugs Moran battled for control of Chicago's illegal drinking dens known as speakeasies. Capone claimed that he was only a businessman, but between 1927 and 1930 more than 500 gangland murders took place.

Estimated that during Prohibition, $2,000 million worth of business was transferred from the brewing industry and bars to bootleggers and gangsters.

Gangs grew in activity and power. -Made $2 billion a year
-Rival gangs fought, hijacked each other's supplies, killed over them.
-Police took bribes to ignore it.
-In 1926-27 there were 136 gang murders in Chicago, no convictions.

21st amendment

In 1929, however, the Wickersham Commission reported that Prohibition was not working. In February 1933, Congress passed the 21st Amendment, which repealed Prohibition. Prohibition had failed.

There weren't enough Prohibition agents to enforce the law - only 1,500 in 1920.

The low salary paid to the agents made it easy to bribe them. Many agents were corrupt and allowed gangsters to continue selling

Many Americans never gave their support to Prohibition and were willing to drink in speakeasies - bars that claimed to sell soft drinks, but served alcohol behind the scenes.

Gangsters such as Al Capone made money from organised crime.

Protection rackets, organised crime and gangland murders were more common during Prohibition than when alcohol could be bought legally.

Immigrants

The USA Constitution states everyone is equal, but many groups in America in the 1920s were not treated fairly. There was alot of prejudice against those who weren't considered 'real' Americans.

At the end of the 19th century, the USA had an Open Door policy which encouraged immigration. By 1920, more than 40 million people had arrived. A combination of push and pull factors made people emigrate to the USA.

Push factors made people want to leave own countries, and pull factors attracted them to USA. main reasons were: escaping from poverty in their own country and the hope of equality of opportunity.

Most immigrants travelled to the USA by sea, and more than 70 per cent arrived on Ellis Island near New York. During the busiest periods, as many as 5,000 people arrived every day. They underwent a series of medical tests and anyone suffering from a disease was kept on Ellis Island for days or even weeks, or else returned to their own country.

Immigrants were questioned about work and financial situation, given literacy tests to ensure they could work and not be a burden on society.

Between 1850-1914, 40 million people moved to America.

Literacy Test, 1917

The US Congress passed three laws to restrict immigration and each law in turn was more severe than the previous one.

Immigrants had to pass a series of reading and writing tests

The Emergency Quota Act, 1921

The US Congress passed three laws to restrict immigration and each law in turn was more severe than the previous one.

This law restricted the number of immigrants to 357,000 per year, and
also set down a quota. Only 3% of the total population of any overseas group already in the USA in 1910 could come into America after 1921.

The National Origins Act, 1924

The US Congress passed three laws to restrict immigration and each law in turn was more severe than the previous one.

This law reduced the maximum number of immigrants to 150,000 per year and cut the quota to 2 per cent, based on the population of the USA in 1890

open door policy

By 1920, Americans began to disapprove of government's Open Door policy because they feared the economic, political and social impact of immigration:

• They were taking the jobs that Americans thought should be theirs.
• drove down wages, there were so many of them competing for jobs
• overcrowded slums were linked to crime, violence and prostitution.

The Red Scare

In the 1920s, there was an increase in xenophobia and racial persecution in the USA.

Americans frightened by the Communist Revolution in Russia in October 1917. Some believed that a communist coup was going to happen in the USA, especially as the American Socialist Party and the American Communist Party were established during this period.

Palmer raids

Mitchell Palmer claimed there were around 150,000 communists living in the country. He started rumours that they had infiltrated Congress. He said they were working on behalf of the US government to spread communism. He used the Red Scare as an excuse to organise attacks against left-wing organisations. There were serious consequences of the raids.

6,000 people, who were mostly not communist supporters, were arrested and held in a prison without a trial.

556 of them were also deported on flimsy evidence under the 1918 Alien Act.

People used the raids as an excuse to attack any group they disliked or distrusted.

Trade unions were weakened by Palmer’s rumours and raids because they were branded un-American.

What drew people to America

Natural resources: Oil, timber, materials and cheap land
Persecution: Political and religious issues in Europe led many to the US (e.g in the late 19th century thousands of East European Jews were fleeing persecution)

Overcrowding: Large increases in population in Europe led to overcrowding and land shortage

Economic opportunity: American business led the world, growing fast
Space: Huge plains for farms, towns and cities growing
Freedom: 'The American Dream'
Lack of opportunity: Difficult to make a living in Europe

Cycle of prosperity

Increased goods - Increased demand - Increased jobs- Increased disposable income for workers - Increased amount of goods bought - Increased demand (start again)

Moonshine and speakeasies

Drinking became secret and expensive.
The rich had it delivered in secret, others went to speakeasies.
By 1925 there were 15,000 in Detroit. 1929- 32,000 in NY.


Moonshine- in 1930 282,122 illegal stills were seized, was often deadly, causing poisoning and blindness, 700 deaths in 1926.

Bootlegging had great profits. -2300 agents were employed but were badly paid and ineffective.

One in 12 were caught taking bribes, but many had to accept or get beaten by gangsters.

Al capone

Had 700 gang members, all-armed.
Used money from illegal alcohol, rackets, etc. to bribe authorities
Gained more power bribing law enforcement
Became a celebrity, mixed with businessmen, politicians, movie stars.
Authorities could only charge him with tax evasion.

The Valentines day massacre

On 14th Feb 1929, seven men were in a garage in Chicago, five were members of George 'Bugs' Moran's gang.

Two men dressed as police entered, had the men against the wall, took their guns.

Then two hitmen entered, opened fire, killed the seven in seconds.
Moran was one of the few who didn't fall to Capone, so it was obvious who arranged it. People were finally shocked into action and called for prohibition to end.

The Sacco and Vanzetti case

Italian immigrants, anarchists who avoided serving in WW1. They spoke little English.

In April 1920, in South Braintree, the paymaster of a shoe factory and armed guard were attacked by 2 men and shot. Criminals got away with $15,000 in a stolen car. The guard and the paymaster later died, but not before they described attackers as slim foreigners with oily skin.

In May 1920, Sacco and Vanzetti were arrested from armed robbery and murder. They had anti-government pamphlets and guns in car when they were arrested and couldn't prove where they had been on the day of the murders.

They were tried at the height of the Red Scare. Public opinion was against them because of their political ideas and because immigrants.

During court case in May 1921, Judge Webster Thayer was prejudice against them. The defence team had 107 witnesses alleging that they had seen them somewhere else during the crime, but the prosecution's 61 witnesses, who said they seen them commit crime, were believed

Although a man named Celestino Madeiros later admitted that he had committed the crime, In August 1927, they were both executed by electrocution in Charlestown prison.

The experience of African Americans

The US Constitution states that everyone is equal, but many groups in America in the 1920s were not treated fairly. There was a great deal of prejudice against those who were not considered 'real' Americans.

Slavery ended in 1865, AA in southern states suffered more discrimination than north, because of Jim Crow laws. These legalised segregation and helped to keep AA in inferior positions in society.

Growth of industrial cities in north led to 1 million AA from South migrating to these areas to look for work. Most moved to cities such as New York, Chicago and Detroit. Life was hard in north even though Jim Crow laws did not exist here. Given menial tasks, due to racism and poor education. 60% of AA women in Milwaukee worked as domestic servants. Their wages did not match white people doing the same job.

Expressed frustrations at discrimination through music and literature. Culture flourished in 1920s, especially in inner city areas, like Harlem in New York. Music, such as jazz, soul and blues, became popular. When jazz banned in many cities, performers moved to speakeasies. Young white people were influenced by this culture.

Jim Crow Laws

The laws meant that white people and black Americans had to live separately. The areas affected by segregation included churches, hospitals, schools, toilets, parks and other public places.

Schools for black Americans were deliberately kept inferior, so that they would remain uneducated and not advance in society.

Voting was made difficult for black Americans. To be allowed to vote people had to: Pay a poll tax: Due to low wages, many black Americans were too poor to pay the tax, and were therefore unable to vote.

Pass a literacy test: People had to prove that they could read difficult extracts from texts, but literacy levels were low amongst black Americans so few could vote. Black Americans were forced to work in low paid, unskilled jobs.

The KKK

A racist group which began in southern states at end of American Civil War in 1865. It was revived in 1915 and grew quickly.

1921, had over 100,000 members but by the mid-1920s the movement was at its strongest with 5 million members. Only White Anglo-Saxon Protestants (WASPs) could join.

They believed in the supremacy of white Protestants, initially discriminated against AA, but in 1920s also attacked and terrorised Roman Catholics, Jews, new immigrants, communists and socialists.

Extended the geographical area it operated in to cover the nation, not just south, it expanded itto political influence into key positions, including the Governorship of Alabama.

Race riots in 1919 in 23 cities, such as Chicago, alarmed white people and membership grew. Exploited racist attitudes held in small towns, played on fears that mass immigration might lead to unemployment, communism, corruption, alcohol abuse and un-American ideas.

night-time meetings, they marched in white clothing with hoods; violently attacking minority communities; murder and lynch which were mob killings of black Americans without trial, known as “Rope Law”. In the state of Georgia in 1924-25.

In total, over 400 AA were lynched in the 1920s. Members were not punished because: many held positions of authority, such as judges, so members were not found guilty in court; the local police often stood by and did nothing to help victims, they took part in killings; difficult for government to change long-held attitudes of people in south; politicians didn't take action because scared of losing WASP votes

Overproduction and under consumption in agriculture - cause of wall street crash

As farming techniques improved, farmers started producing more food. However, the demand for grain fell in America because of Prohibition and changes in tastes in food.

There was also less demand from Europeans for food from America because they were growing their own crops and there was a tariff war.

Overproduction led to falling prices. Thousands of farmers fell into crippling debt, could not pay their mortgages and so became unemployed after having to sell their farms or being evicted. In 1924,
600,000 farmers lost their farms.

Sharecroppers in the south, who were mostly black Americans, were often evicted when the white-owned farms had financial problems.

Overproduction and under consumption of consumer goods: causes of wall street crash

By the end of the 1920s, there were too many consumer goods unsold in the USA. Mass production methods led to supply outstripping demand. People who could afford items, such as cars and household
gadgets, had already purchased them.

Also, people in agriculture and the traditional industries, who were on low wages, could not afford consumer goods. This meant workers were laid off, which reduced demand for goods even further

Protectionism: causes of wall street crash

America tried to sell its surplus goods in Europe.

However, the Fordney-McCumber Tariff Act 1922 had led to European countries imposing tariffs on American goods.

This meant American goods were too expensive to buy in Europe and, as a result, there was not much trade between America and Europe

Debt increasing: causes of wall street crash

A lot of Americans bought goods on hire purchase.

As a result, they owed money to shops and credit companies. Many of these businesses went into financial difficulties when people failed to pay their debts.

House prices increased a great deal in the early 1920s. However, after 1926, house prices fell leaving some Americans owning houses that were worth less money than what they had paid for them.

Laissez-faire: causes of wall street crash

The laissez-faire policy meant there were not enough safeguards in the
economy, especially on the banks and the stock market.

Banks were not regulated. There were very few large banks in America, but there was a huge number of small ones which were unstable and did not have the financial resources to cope with the rush for money when the Wall Street Crash happened.

Many banks had already closed even before the crash, leaving thousands of customers with no money at all.

short-term causes of wall street crash

When Hoover became President in 1929, people thought he would increase tariffs because he had promised to do this in the campaign. This boosted trading in shares on stock market, which pushed prices up. When Senate blocked Hoover’s plans on tariffs people began selling their shares. Prices started to drop sharply.

Experienced investors knew the economy was falling and shares were over-valued. In September 1929, their lack of confidence in shares meant they began selling them in large numbers. This caused prices to drop further.

They rushed to sell their shares. On 24 October, Black Thursday, 12.8 million shares were sold. Prices plummeted and the stock market began to crumble. On 29 October 1929, Black Tuesday, the collapse of the economy was complete. 16 million shares were sold at a fraction of their price.

Thousands saw their fortune invested in shares disappear. Those who had bought “on the margin” were in great trouble. The stock market had now collapsed.

Collapse of the banks: wall street crash

659 banks closed in 1929. This increased to 2,294 in 1931. They collapsed because people withdrew their savings for fear of losing money. This led to the remainder of savers losing their cash as well. Banks which remained refused loans to struggling firms, leading to bankruptcies.

Collapse of the businesses: wall street crash

The public lost confidence economy and in the future. They blamed big businesses and banks for problems. Suicides went
up 50%. Businesses struggled to sell their products overseas so were forced to cut production, then wages and eventually had to fire workers.

Unemployment: wall street crash

People could no longer buy consumer goods, such as cars and clothes. As a result, workers were made redundant. Unemployment rose to 25% of the national workforce (14 million people). In Denora during March 1932, only 277 people out of nearly 14,000 had jobs.

Overall, there was great misery. People struggled to buy basic goods, such as food and clothing. The number of deaths directly linked to starvation increased during the Depression, and many other illnesses and deaths were related to a lack of nutrition. Homelessness was common as repossessions of homes increased. About 2 million bankrupt farmers and unemployed people became hobos. Shanty towns, called Hoovervilles, made out of waste materials, sprang up at the edges of most towns to house displaced people.

Famers: wall street crash

already distressing in the 1920s, deepened. A renewal of the USA’s tariff war with other countries, because of the Hawley- Smoot Act, decreased sales even further and evictions for non-payment of mortgage increased. Prices were so low, farmers left the crops to rot in the fields and farm animals were killed instead of being taken to market.

Natural disasters compounded problems. From 1930 onwards, farmers in the Mid-West were hit by a series of droughts, which eventually created the Dust Bowl of 20 million hectares of land. Farmers in the Tennessee Valley had their crops and topsoil washed away by floods.

How did Hoover respond to the Great Depression?

Introduced the Hawley-Smoot Act 1930, which increased tariffs by 50% on imported manufactured items, aimed to help industry sell more home-produced goods. Foreign countries retaliated by taxing American goods, so trade fell even further

Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) was established in 1932 which provided loans totalling $1,500 million to rescue
businesses, banks and insurance companies. The loans did not save enough companies

Initially cut taxes by $130 million to stimulate investment, but in 1932 they increased on businesses to help balance the budget. additional taxes on business did not help balance the budget, plus they made the survival of firms more difficult

Made $300 million available to states to help unemployed, but only $30 million was given out.

Hoover’s actions did not halt the Depression. It continued to deepen. The Industrial production continued to drop. It decreased by 45% between 1929 and 1932. House-building fell by 92% between 1929 and 1932.

Businesses continued to go bankrupt, especially banks. From 1929 to 1932, 5,000 banks, which tended to be too small and
unregulated, went out of business, However, not all businessmen lost out in the depression. Overall, the very rich remained prosperous. Multi-millionaires, such as J D Rockefeller, kept their wealth in items like gold so they didn't suffer as much.

What was the experience of workers during the depression?

Unemployment increased: 1.6 million in 1929 to 14 million in 1933. People were desperate for work. FOR EXAMPLE, in 1930 there were 6,000 men on the streets of New York trying to survive by selling apples.

Wages fell: Competition for jobs increased, employers reduced wages and increased hours. FOR EXAMPLE, teachers were not paid when city councils in Chicago went bankrupt.

Reliance on charity schemes: America didn't have unemployment benefits. Hoover eventually had to lend billions of federal monies to them in 1932 to fund public work schemes. Charities and wealthy individuals organised cheap meals centres. Even Al Capone gave money for a soup kitchen in Chicago.

Unemployed organised themselves into groups to support each other, at the lack of action by the government turned into violence. In 1930, a rally of unemployed people became a riot as police charged the crowd. There were strikes and bitter clashes.

Bonus marchers

The biggest protest march in 1932. The First World War veterans demanded early payment of their $1,000 war bonuses, which were not due until 1945. With their wives and children, 15,000 of them set up a camp on Anacostia Flats, Washington. Hoover accused them of being communists and ordered their removal. They were dispersed by armed troops, cavalry, tanks and tear gas on the command of General MacArthur. Two babies died and many children were injured. This caused national outrage.

Millions were horrified by the methods used to remove the Bonus Army from Washington and were shocked by the deaths
and injuries which occurred.

Why did Roosevelt win the 1932 election? Negatives associated with Hoover

Thought the crash would be short-lived, believed in laissez-faire
and rugged individualism would return economy to prosperity.

Laissez-faire meant the government limits its intervention in economy. Hoover said too much interference would mean economic normality would not return.

Rugged individualism meant people were expected to overcome problems and succeed by own efforts. They were not to depend on help from the government. Hoover thought aid would damage morals. He was a self-made millionaire and expected others to be self-reliant.

Voluntarism meant help for the homeless and hungry should be from charities, businesses, churches, not the federal government.

Balancing budget meant ensuring the government spent no more than it earned in taxes. He thought the depression was caused by problems in worldwide economy, beyond America’s control.

Depression continued to deepen in 1930, he took some action. It was not until 1932, when poverty had mounted, that substantial measures were introduced. He had underestimated the severity of the depression. Hoover seemed heartless because of his ineffective policies.

The Great Depression deepened during his presidency. Unemployment increased from 1.6 million to 14 million.
Wages in many industries fell far below the poverty level.
Millions of people had to exist in “Hoovervilles”.
Crops rotted in the ground while people starved.
refused to aid the poor until 1932.
Sharecroppers’ difficulties were largely ignored.

In Hoover’s election campain, his speeches increased his unpopularity. Voters disliked his emphasis on self-reliance and the need for neighbours to help each other, not the government. People did not believe his promise that, “Prosperity is just around the corner”. He offered no new policies. He had none of the warmth and charm of his presidential opponent.

Why did Roosevelt win the 1932 election? Positives associated with Roosevelt

Already helped the poor as Governor of New York by setting up the first staterun relief scheme. This made him popular with the workers, if not businessmen.

his ideas in the election campaign seemed radically different from Hoover’s “rugged individualism” and were therefore popular with the voters.

During his election campaign, he made a number of pledges:
“New Deal”. Said the government would have a more active role in the economy, and would stop rich exploiting poor.

more public works and relief schemes. Experiment with new ideas to revive agriculture and industry. In reality, many of his ideas were quite traditional and sometimes they were contradictory, but the electorate was desperate for change and liked the promises of a “New Deal” and “Action and Action Now”.

In contrast to Hoover, he ran a positive campaign. He travelled around America to bring his message, in spite of his polio. He was more approachable and charismatic than Hoover, and a more confident speaker.

1933 - 1944, Roosevelt addressed the nation with 30 radio broadcasts. He addressed a wide range of subjects, from banking to European politics. These broadcasts became known as “fireside chats”. They were well received by Americans

Roosevelt and the ‘New Deal’

Relief: Help victims of Depression. Millions of ordinary
Americans faced unemployment, hunger, and poverty.

Recovery: Encourage economic recovery. Depression was a disaster. Roosevelt knew that he had to take action to encourage recovery, to get the nation back to work.

Reform: Reform the economic system. The whole economic system would have to be altered so that there would never again be a Depression as bad as the 1930s.

To achieve these objectives, Roosevelt decided that direct action and intervention by the federal government would be necessary. The days of laissez-faire were over.

Emergency Banking Act

closed banks for a four-day bank holiday. Every bank was inspected and only honest, well-run banks could re-open. When the banks re-opened people put money back in their accounts. Well-run banks could now lend money to well-run businesses –this would create jobs as businesses expanded.

Economy Act

this cut the pay of everyone working for the government and the armed forces by 15%. This saved nearly $1 billion.

Beer Act

this made it legal to produce and sell alcohol again. Legalising alcohol put the gangsters out of business and the government could also raise money by taxing alcohol.

Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA)

The 'Alphabet' agencies
This helped the poor in a number of basic ways, such as giving clothing grants and setting up soup kitchens for the poor. $500 million was given to the homeless and starving.

Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA)

The 'Alphabet' agencies
This tried to help farmers by controlling farm production and stabilising prices. It was an attempt to end the over-production and falling agricultural prices that had crippled American farmers. Farmers were paid to destroy food.

National Recovery Administration (NRA)

The 'Alphabet' agencies
This tried to help industry and factory workers by increasing wages and improving hours and conditions. In total, 2.5 million firms, employing 22 million workers joined the scheme

Public Works Administration (PWA)

The 'Alphabet' agencies
This created jobs by paying unemployed people to build schools, bridges and dams. This was replaced by the Works Progress Administration in 1935

Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC).

The 'Alphabet' agencies
Similar to the PWA, this department provided jobs to large numbers of young men in conservation schemes in the countryside. The CCC created jobs for 2.5 million men.

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)

The 'Alphabet' agencies
This scheme brought hydro-electric power to seven states in the Tennessee Valley, one of the worst affected areas of the country. Dams and power-plants were built, creating many jobs.

Successes of New deal

The New Deal created jobs. For example, 2.5 million 18-25 year-olds got to work in the CCC.

1932 saw 4000 bank failures. When FDR started as president in 1933 the number of bank failures dropped below 250

During what is often called ‘the Second New Deal’ (1935 -38) FDR introduced Social Security Act (SSA) this was a system of social welfare. A national system of pensions and welfare payments.

Throughout the 1930s America’s Gross National Product
steadily rises. This is the total value of all goods and services produced within a country, plus income earned by citizens.

Many women found work in the Alphabet Agencies or were
helped by the SSA (Social Security Act).

FDR introduced measures to raise the price of crops and
loans available to farmers and help save them from eviction.
200,000 AA gained jobs in CCC, one AA woman, Mary McLeod Bethune, was appointed to an important post in government.

FDR increased amount of land owned by Native Americans. Loans provided so they could buy land, start businesses and buy farming equipment.

Indian Reserve Act (1934) gave Native Americans right to manage own affairs, such as setting up their own law courts

failures of New deal

The New Deal did not solve unemployment and there was always at least one in ten people unemployed in the USA throughout the 1930s.

Alphabet Agencies gave workers basic wage. However, Supreme Court ruled many NRA’s wage codes were illegal. FDR introduced Wagner Act which gave workers right to join a trade union.

Women faced discrimination in all sorts of ways. Some of the NRA codes set wages for women lower than those of men. The average yearly wage for a woman in 1937 was $525 compared to just of $1000 for a man.

Most help for farmers went to large-scale farmers. Small farmers did not see much benefit. There was still severe poverty and poor
farmland in parts of Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas and Colorado (known as the dustbowl) meant that many farmers had to look for work elsewhere.

Many Agencies continued to discriminate against AA. CCC (Civilian conversation corps) AA were not allowed to live in the newly built town or Norris in the Tennessee Valley. Roosevelt refused to take steps to end discrimination

End of the new deal

After re-election in 1936 FDR grew worried about increasing cost of job creation schemes like TVA. Cut down the amount of spending but this resulted in unemployment jumping to 3 million.

In 1936, thousands of workers went on strike in the car and steel industry. Campaigning for better wages and conditions.

By 1938, America was sliding towards Depression again. Unemployment had rose to 10.5 million and car and steel production had fell. FDR himself acknowledged that the New Deal came to an end by Jan 1939.

Opposition to the new deal: New Deal went too far and was interfering

REPUBLICANS
Remember they believed in Rugged Individualism, FDR was behaving like a dictator – like Stalin and that the NRA and
TVA were like communist economic planning. Believed Social Security Act would make people dependant on government help. Objected to the cost. Thought money was being wasted – e.g. WPA was paying people to do unnecessary jobs.

BUSINESS
Didn’t like government involved in business. Didn’t like FDR’s support for Trade Unions and campaign to raise wages. Didn’t want to pay social security contributions. Criticised NRA for allowing workers to join trade unions and forced employers to pay minimum wage, improve living conditions and pay better wages. 1934 A group of business Leaders formed the Liberty League to oppose New Deal.

RICH
Didn’t like having to pay high taxes. Bitter because FDR’s policies had taken away some of their power.

Opposition to the New Deal: against the constitution

SUPREME COURT:
11 out of 16 of Alphabet Laws were declared unconstitutional by Supreme Court. The argument of Supreme Court was it tried to impose the power of the federal government on governments – and this was unconstitutional.

Opposition to the New Deal: Those who believed it didn’t go far enough

HUEY KINGFISH LONG -
Governor of Louisiana, Proposed ‘Share our Wealth’ scheme – all fortunes over $5million should be confiscated and shared out. Every American family given between $4000 - $5000. Promised every family $5000 to buy a radio, a car and a house as well as cheap food for the poor, houses for war veterans and free education. FDR had failed to share out the nation’s wealth fairly and he announced his own plans to do this under the slogan, ‘Share Our Wealth’. Long said that FDR should confiscate the ‘swollen fortunes’ of the wealthy and use this to give every American household a car, a house and two to three thousand dollars a year. He promised to make ‘every man a king’ and attracted the support of millions of the poor. Membership of the ‘Share Our Wealth’ clubs reached 7.5 million people.

DOCTOR FRANCIS TOWNSEND
Everyone over 60 should get a pension of $200 provided they gave up jobs so that young people could have them. Gained much support from old people. Set up organisation called ‘Old Age Revolving Pension Plan’, also known as Townsend Clubs, which attracted 5 million members by 1935. The scheme was to give $200 a month to every citizen over 60 who had retired. The
plan was to encourage more people to retire and thus create more jobs for the unemployed.

FATHER COUGHLIN
the ‘radio priest’ - Viciously attacked FDR accusing him of failing to tackle problems of poor. Set up National Union for Social Justice which attracted millions of members. At first, in 1933, Coughlin supported FDR, but within 2 years he was an opponent. This organisation promised work and fair wages for all. He also proposed to nationalise all banks and introduce a national minimum wage. Labelled FDR as ‘anti-God’ because he was not helping the needy. His main influence came from his weekly broadcasts which attracted over 40 million listeners, especially from urban and lower middle-class America. However, many more people tuned in to FDR’s ‘fireside chats.’

Literature

The Great Depression produced some of the greatest works in American literature. Writers focused on blunt and direct representation of American life and offered social criticism, coming often from the perspective of leftist political views. John Steinbeck became the author of the era. He often wrote about poor, working-class people and their struggle to lead a decent and honest life. The Grapes of Wrath, considered a masterpiece.

Comics:

The 1930s also witnessed the development of popular literary
genres. Pulp fiction magazines began to feature distinctive, gritty, adventure heroes that combined elements of hard-boiled detective fiction and the fantastic adventures of the earlier
pulp novels. Two particularly noteworthy characters introduced
were Doc Savage and The Shadow, who would later influence the creation of characters such as Superman and Batman. Near the end of the decade, two of the world’s most iconic superheroes and recognizable fictional characters, Superman and Batman, were introduced in comic books

Movies

Cinema was a popular leisure activity of the 1930s. The 60 million people who went each week often wanted to escape the trouble of the Depression. Comedies starring Charlie Chaplin and Laurel and Hardy, Walt Disney cartoons and horror films such as Dracula were very popular. Adaptations of classic and best-selling literary works were popular. Classics of American cinema as King Kong and The Adventures of Robin Hood

Radio and music

By 1930, new styles developed. Swing music developed with corresponding swing dance. The pioneer of jazz music, Louis Armstrong, continued to inspire both audiences and musicians.

Gramophones/vinyls became popular way to listen to recorded music. The 1930s was the era of popularity of radio. Bob Hope
being one of the biggest comedic radio personalities of the time, and music, theatre, and soap operas, to news and political content.

World war two

1935 – Neutrality Act banned loan weapons to countries at war

1937 – Law stopped sales of weapons to countries involved in
conflict. FDR made famous ‘Quarantine’ speech where he said peace-loving nations should stand up to aggressive nations. Said he would break off relations with nations who were aggressors

1939 – war breaks out. America declares support for B and F. FDR persuades congress to change neutrality law to allow support of B and F. USA sold high quality weapons to B and F

NOV – B and F began to buy US weapons and warships known as ‘Cash and Carry Plan’. Created valuable production jobs

1940 – Germany defeated F. B stood alone against Hitler. British government ran short of money, FDR gave Britain 50 warships.

March 1941 – FDR agreed to Lend Lease deal. Instead of selling weapons to B America would lend $7000 million of weapons

Strained relationship between Japan/America throughout 1930s over Japan’s invasion of China and America’s refusal to sell Japan oil/steel, the relationship grew worse. Japanese military leaders planned secret attack on US ships at a naval base.

Dec 7 1941 – Japanese bombers attacked Pearl Harbour. 177
US planes were destroyed, 2000 men were killed. The next day
America and B declare war on Japan. 3 days later Germany and Italy declare war on America.

Women during WWII:

Before war broke out women worked in traditional roles such
as nursing or teaching.

Women began to work in factories, railways and shipyards.

In 1939, just 36 women worked in shipbuilding. In 1942, 200,000. Around 350,000 women joined women’s sections of armed forces.

Between 1940-45, number of women in work rose from 12 million to nearly 19 million.

Women occupied a third of all America’s jobs and the
transformation of industry was unprecedented.

African American during WWII

Early in the war a march was organised to protest the
treatment of African – American workers

The Fair Employment Practice Committee (FEPC) was set up – this found widespread discrimination.

One aircraft makers only employed ten African -Americans
out of a workplace of 30,000.

As war went on racial barriers broke down. African –Americans trained as pilots and the armed forces trained black officers.

Around 1 million African – Americans fought in the war.
Black sailors were only allowed to work in the kitchen and the air
force wouldn’t train black pilots.

Weapon making and unemployment:

In January 1942, the War Production Board (WPB) was created to convert industries from peacetime work to war work.

Within weeks car companies began to build tanks and fighter planes, factories that made silk ribbons produced parachutes.

The WPB made sure every factory received all the materials it needed to produce the most war goods in the fastest time.

In 1943, US factories produced 86,000 planes, 96,000 in 1944.

In 1939, there were 9.5million unemployed, around 17% of the potential workforce. This figure started to drop as soon as America began to re-arm. 1941, 4 million found jobs building fighter planes and battleships

When war broke out, unemployed men joined the armed forces and by 1944 unemployment had dropped to just 670,000.

Additional economic benefits: Farmers prospered because they supplied food to military and traditional industries of coal, iron, steel and oil were boosted by war demand.

Postwar Prosperity

When war ended life in America returned to normal. Peacetime goods were produced with the same efficiency as war time goods. Soon people could afford luxury goods such as: ovens, televisions and cars. A huge advertising industry and ‘buy
now, pay later’ schemes persuaded people to spend their money. Massive shopping malls were built on the outskirts of towns.

By the end of the 1950s, 9 out of every 10 household had a TV, 8 had a car and a telephone and 7 had a washing machine.

By 1952, America was supplying world with 65% of worlds manufactured goods. Its growing population was consuming one third of the world’s good and services.The baby boom saw a 40% increase the population.

Truman’s ‘Fair Deal’ 1945-1952

Truman felt it was important to help the most in need and bring a ‘fairer society’. His plans were called the ‘Fair Deal’. The two main issues were poverty and rights for AA.

Truman raised minimum wage from 40 cents to 70 cents and cleared large slums to make way for affordable housing. These were not supported by Republicans and Southern politicians.

The GI Bill was passed to help veterans. It established hospitals, made cheap home loans available and offered grants to pay ex-soldiers to attend college or trade schools.

From 1944-49, nearly 9 million veterans received $4 billion from the government.

Eisenhower

In 1952 Eisenhower became President. He continued with the New Deal and the Fair Deal. He encouraged economic growth and looked after middle classes. By the end of the 1950s the USA was producing half the world’s manufactured goods.

19 million Americans moved from the cities to live in suburbs. It was possible for them to do this because they could buy cars, the standard of roads was better and the interest on mortgages was low. By 1960, 25% of American people lived in suburbs. These people had a television, a record player, swimming pools and cars.

People bought on credit – Between 1945-60 the number of people who had a car rose from 25 million to 62 million. Cars like Cadillac were popular.

He was Republican who brought lots of business people to the government to keep economy booming. They succeeded and the
standard of living for millions improved and wages kept rising.

Was this a time of the American Dream? 1950s

Despite America being the richest county in the world by the 1950s, there were still areas were the majority of people were desperately poor with substandard living.

25% were still living in poverty – there was no NHS, jobseekers allowance or sickness pay. Elderly failed to benefit from boom. In 1960, 68% people over 65 had an income of less than $1000 at a time when average factory workers earnings were over $4000.

Popular Culture in the 1950s

term ‘teenager’ became common. Before war children were expected to work to support families upon leaving school.
Graduating from high school was uncommon.

In fact, before the 1950s fewer than 2 out of 3 students completed compulsory education. After the war this changed, with a booming economy parents could now support children. They no longer had to get a job, parents began to insist their children finished education and go to college afterwards.

teenagers had more leisure time and spending power

In 1957, estimated that on average the teenager spends between $10 and $15 a week compared to $1 - $2 in the early 1940s. Teenagers’ annual spending climbed from $10 billion in 1950 to $25 billion in 1959. Businesses realised that they could sell
products to teenagers, targeted their advertising to cash in on them growing purchasing power

Teenage boys became ‘thrill seekers’ who raced cars and drank heavily. Teenagers got reputation for being rebellious and angry. Figures like James Dean and Marlon Brando became emblems of teenage rebellion. In 1953 the film The Wild One, Brando’s character leads a motorcycle gang.

Rock and roll - 1950s

A new style of music spread across America in 1950s – It had strong rhythm and was easy to dance to which appealed to teenagers. The lyric often contained sexual references and was unpopular among older Americans. This made it even more popular with teenagers. It became linked with teenage crime
and gang culture. A 1956 TV performance by Elvis Presley was watched by a staggering 82% of Americans.

Television: 1950s

One of the most popular products in the 1950s. At the start of decade, there were 3 million TV owners; by the end of it, there were 55 million, watching shows from 530 stations. The average price of TV sets dropped from about $500 in 1949 to $200 in 1953. TV helped make professional and college sports big businesses, and provided excellent comedy and dramatic shows to vast audiences.

Movies: 1950s

In the period following WWII when most films were idealised with conventional portrayals of men and women, young people wanted new symbols of rebellion. Hollywood responded to audience demands - the late 40s and 50s saw the rise of the anti-hero - with stars like newcomers James Dean. Due to television (a small black and white screen) becoming affordable and a permanent fixture in most people's homes, the movies fought back with gimmicks - colour films, bigger screens, and 3-D.

The Impact of the Cold War

The fear of communism developed in US, in the years after Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 in Russia. Although the US and
Soviet Union were allies during the WW2, American distrust of communism continued.

In the years after 1945, a Cold War developed between US and Soviet Union. This led to increase in fear and hatred of communism. Communists, or those thought to have communist values, faced great intolerance and eventual loss of political and other rights. '

"Better dead than Red"
became a popular slogan.
A member of the US government, Alger Hiss, was accused of spying for the Soviet Union. Two Americans – Ethel and Julius Rosenberg – were also accused of spying and executed in June 1953. These scandals became news headlines, and the fear that there were communists at work across America grew.

This was known as Mcarthyism - the second red scare

House of Representatives Un-American Activities Committee

Investigated allegations of communist activity in US. during the
early years of Cold War (1945-91).

Established in 1938, they used their power as weapon and called citizens to testify in high-profile hearings before Congress.

This intimidating atmosphere often produced dramatic but questionable revelations about Communists infiltrating America. HUAC’s controversial tactics contributed to the fear, distrust of the Red Scare.

The Loyalty Programme

The program gave loyalty review boards the power to fire government employees when “reasonable grounds” existed for
the belief they were disloyal.

Evidence of disloyalty included not only treasonous activities, but “sympathetic association” with a long list of organisations deemed by the Attorney General to be “Communist, fascist, or totalitarian.”

Joseph McCarthy

In 1950, ambitious and dishonest Republican senator, McCarthy, claimed he had a list of 205 members of the Communist Party in the US who worked for the State Department.

Most enthusiastic anticommunist, became the symbol of the 'Red-hating crusader' and gave his name to era - McCarthyism.

Over the next few years McCarthyism became associated with a communist witch hunt, in which over 2,000 men and women were asked to appear before the Senate's House Un-American Activities Committee.

By the time he was exposed as a fraud, he had created
an atmosphere of fear and ruined lives. Many hard-working citizens lost jobs because they were labelled as "Communists". Those who retained their jobs realised that their career has been destroyed. Many, failed to convince all that they innocent. This had a huge effect on the psychological aspect of life. Innocent people had to go through trauma of being prosecuted. Relationships were destroyed because of trust issues.

The Civil Rights Movement

Martin Luther King a Georgian Baptist Minister believed in non-violent protest, including sit-ins and boycotts. He was awarded a Nobel Peace Prize in 1964 in recognition of his non-violent approach to eliminating racism.

Brown Vs Board of Education

May 17, 1954
Topeka, Kansas
This was a landmark case. Supreme court unanimously agree segregation in public schools is unconstitutional. The ruling paves way for large scale desegregation. Reverend Brown and other plaintiffs won the right in the supreme court to send their children to a white school.

The decision overturns the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson ruling that sanctioned "separate but equal" segregation of the races, ruling that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal." It is a victory for NAACP attorney Thurgood Marshall, who will later return to the Supreme Court as the nation's first black justice.

The Murder of Emmett Till

1955 Aug
14 year old Emmett Till is visiting family in Mississippi when he is kidnapped, brutally beaten, shot, and dumped in the Tallahatchie River for allegedly whistling at a white woman.

Two white men, J.W. Milam and Roy Bryant, are arrested for the murder in September and acquitted by an all-white jury on the 23rd of September. They later boast about committing the murder in a Look magazine interview.

Demonstrated AA couldn't get justice in America because of the prejudice of all-male and all-white juries and judges. growth of the civil rights movement was fuelled by the murder many white Americans saw the extreme racism faced by AA living in the south. More AA encouraged to take part in civil rights protests and bring about change. The murder inspired Rosa Parks to refuse to move on the bus in Montgomery in December 1955.

Bus Boycott

Dec 1, 1955

Little Rock nine

1957 - Sept
The "Little Rock Nine," nine teens, were to be the first AA students to enter Little Rock's Central High School. 3 years earlier, following the Supreme Court ruling, the Little Rock school board pledged to voluntarily desegregate its schools.

September 2, the night prior to the teens' first day in Central high, the Arkansas governor Orval Faubus ordered the state's National Guard to block their entrance. He said it was for the safety of the nine students.

On September 4, 24 hours after a federal judge ordered the Little Rock Nine to begin attending Central High, a mob, along with the National Guard, prevented the teens from entering.

16 days later a federal judge ordered the National Guard removed. Once again on September 23, they attempted to enter the school. Another angry mob gathered and tried to rush into Central High. Fearing for the lives of the nine students, school officials sent the teens home.

on September 25, 1957, following a plea from Little Rock's mayor, Woodrow Mann, President Dwight Eisenhower federalized the National Guard and sent U.S. Army troops to the scene. Personally guarded by soldiers from the National Guard soldiers and the Army's 101st Airborne, the Little Rock Nine began regular class attendance at Central High.

However, their ordeal was far from over. Each day they were harassed by many of the white students. On May 27, 1958, Ernest Green became the first African American graduated from Central High.

Brown Vs Board of Education

1954 May 17 –
The Supreme Court rules on the landmark case Brown
v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kans., unanimously
agreeing that segregation in public schools is
unconstitutional. The ruling paves the way for largescale desegregation. The decision overturns the 1896
Plessy v. Ferguson ruling that sanctioned "separate but
equal" segregation of the races, ruling that "separate
educational facilities are inherently unequal." It is a
victory for NAACP attorney Thurgood Marshall, who
will later return to the Supreme Court as the nation's
first black justice.

The Black Power Movement

By 1965, the non-violent direct-action protest had achieved a great deal. But many AA remained angry and frustrated. They still faced poverty, low wages, poor education and inadequate housing.

Between 1965 - 1968, there were riots in America’s major cities. Investigations showed that the key cause of these riots was frustration of living conditions and a feeling that the police didn’t protect their rights.