cognitive theories

theories and terms for cognitive topic

memory

the storage and retrieval of information acquired through learning

process of memory

encoding, storage, retrieval

encoding

process of converting information into a useable form or code that can be stored in memory

storage

retention of information over time

retrieval

process of locating and recovering stored information from memory so we are consciously aware of it

parts to msm

sensory, short-term, long-term

sensory memory

all information from environment but has not yet reached awareness. unlimited capacity, lasts 0.2-0.4 seconds

short-term memory 

long-term memory 

• relatively permanent

• virtually unlimited

• where information not being consciously held is stored and available to be retrieved from at a later time

serial position effect

psychological phenomenon where the position of an item in a list or sequence influences its recall

primacy effect 

tendency of words at the start of the list to be remembered as they have time to be encoded into long-term memory 

recency effect

tendency of words at end of list to be remembered as they are still in the short-term memory 

strengths of multi-store model 

• straightforward, easy to test, and useful for generating hypotheses about how memory works

• Supported by lab experiments and longitudinal case studies

limitations of multi-store model 

• reductionist: oversimplifies complexity of memory and does not account for other influences such as emotion

• model does not effectively explain why some information is forgotten

working memory 

the short-term memory where information is consciously being held 

episodic buffer 

controls interaction of WMM components and long-term memory

• helps retrieve information from LTM to associate with current information 

central executive

integrates components of working model of memory. also controls where attention is paid and what information is irrelevant to screen out 

phonological loop

auditory working memory

• used in internal rehearsal 

• hears words and processes them auditory way 

visuospatial sketchpad

visual short-term memory

• storage of what we see and visualisation 

schema theory

a mental representation based on prior experience that helps us to understand, communicate about and predict the world around us

assimilation

fitting information into an existing part of information

accommodation

changing existing mental image to fit new information

strengths of schema theory 

• useful framework for understanding general behaviour and cognitive biases - with real-world relevance and applicability 

• supported by empirical evidence 

limitations of schema theory 

• can be too vague and hard to measure 

• individual differences, everyone has varying schemas of everything 

• many classic studies do not have cross cultural relevance 

system 1 thinking

• fast, instinctive, automatic, emotional, intuitive, relatively unconscious

• adaptive reasoning mechanism based on prior experience

• survival goals

system 2 thinking

• slower, analytical, logical, conscious

• evolved later with development of language and abstract reasoning

• overcome immediate responses and analyse situation in greater depth

strengths of dual processing model 

• consistent with evolution - system 1 for life saving decision and system 2 as a modern adaptation to help think deliberately and carefully 

• explains decision-making in everyday life increases real-world relevance and applicability 

limitations of the dual-processing model

• reductionist as it focuses heavily on cognition but does not account for social, emotional and cultural factors that also influence reasoning and decision-making 

• unclear definitions of the systems that can sometimes overlap 

heuristics

short cuts and incomplete, simplified strategies in thinking

anchoring bias

the tendency to rely to heavily on the first piece of information given

strengths of anchoring bias 

• cross-cultural applicability: research over a wide range of cultural setting hence may reflect universal cognitive bias in human thinking 

• ecological validity in real-world decision making 

limitations of anchoring bias

• reductionist explanation - oversimplifies decision-making by focusing on one heuristic and neglecting other factors e.g. prior knowledge

• artificiality of experimental research - studies often involve unrealistic tasks which reduces ecological validity and raises questions about whether the bias as strong in complex, real-world decisions 

emotion

reactions that human beings experience in response to events or situations

cognition

the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience and the senses

amygdala

regulates emotions and has a role in the formation of emotional memories

flashbulb memories

special kind of emotional memory which refers to vivid and detailed memories of highly emotional events

strengths of flashbulb memory

• high ecological validity of studies as they involve participants experiencing real life events 

• biological support - evidence for neurological basis - amygdala and adrenaline 

limitations of flashbulb memory 

• research findings are usually correlational, meaning causal relationships cannot be drawn

• difficult to objectively measure level of emotion, stress or compare relative impact of emotional events - often self-reported or assumed emotional impact

thinking

process of using information/knowledge to make plans, interpret and predict the world

decision making

process of identifying and choosing alternatives based on values, preferences and knowledge

reconstructive memory

old and new material is combined when memories are reconstructed

false memories

memories that are made up and were never actually experienced

leading questions

a question that prompts or encourages the answer wanted