Unit 4 Cummulative

Actor/Observer Effect

The tendency to attribute one’s own behavior to external factors while attributing others' behaviors to internal factors.

Attribution Theory

A theory that explains how individuals interpret events and how this relates to their thinking and behavior.

Dispositional Attribution

Explaining behavior based on internal factors, such as personality or character.

Downward Social Comparison

Comparing oneself to others who are perceived as worse off to feel better about oneself.

Explanatory Style

A habitual way of explaining events, either in a positive (optimistic) or negative (pessimistic) light.

External Locus of Control

The belief that outside forces are responsible for the events in one’s life.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overestimate the impact of personal disposition and underestimate situational influences when explaining others' behavior.

Internal Locus of Control

The belief that one controls their own fate through their actions.

Mere Exposure Effect

The phenomenon where repeated exposure to a stimulus increases an individual's liking for it.

Optimistic Explanatory Style

A tendency to attribute negative events to external, temporary causes, and positive events to internal, permanent causes.

Pessimistic Explanatory Style

A tendency to attribute negative events to internal, stable causes, and positive events to external, temporary causes.

Relative Deprivation

The perception that one is worse off compared to others, leading to feelings of discontent.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

When an individual’s expectations lead to behaviors that cause those expectations to come true.

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to attribute positive events to one’s own character and negative events to external factors.

Situational Attribution

Explaining behavior by considering external factors, rather than internal traits.

Social Comparison

The process of evaluating oneself in relation to others.

Upward Social Comparison

Comparing oneself to others who are perceived to be better off, often leading to motivation.

Belief Perseverance

The tendency to cling to one’s initial beliefs, even when presented with contradictory evidence.

Cognitive Dissonance

The mental discomfort that arises when a person’s beliefs or behaviors are inconsistent.

Cognitive Load

The amount of mental effort being used in working memory.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s beliefs.

Discrimination

Unjust treatment of different categories of people based on characteristics.

Ethnocentrism

The belief that one's own culture is superior to others.

Implicit Attitudes

Attitudes or biases that are not consciously recognized but influence behavior.

Ingroup

A group to which an individual feels they belong.

Ingroup Bias

The tendency to favor individuals within one's own group.

Just-World Phenomenon

The belief that people get what they deserve.

Outgroup

A group to which an individual does not belong.

Outgroup Homogeneity Bias

The tendency to perceive members of an outgroup as more similar than they are.

Prejudice

Preconceived negative judgments toward individuals based on group membership.

Stereotype

A generalized belief or assumption about a group.

Altruism

Selfless concern for the well-being of others.

Attentional Variables

Factors that influence the focus of one’s attention.

Burnout

Emotional, physical, and mental exhaustion caused by excessive stress.

Bystander Effect

The phenomenon where people are less likely to help in an emergency when others are present.

Central Route of Persuasion

Persuasion based on logic and evidence.

Collectivism

A cultural value emphasizing group goals over individual desires.

Conformity

Adjusting one’s behavior to align with group norms.

Deindividuation

The loss of self-awareness in group situations.

Diffusion of Responsibility

The tendency to feel less personal responsibility in a group.

Door-in-the-Face Technique

A persuasion strategy where a large request is followed by a smaller one.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

A theory explaining how attitudes are formed and changed.

False Consensus Effect

The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share one's beliefs.

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

A persuasion strategy where a small request is followed by a larger one.

Group Polarization

The tendency for group discussion to intensify members' preexisting views.

Groupthink

The suppression of dissenting opinions in favor of consensus.

Halo Effect

The tendency for an overall impression of a person to influence perceptions of their traits.

Individualism

A cultural value emphasizing personal goals and autonomy.

Industrial-Organization (I/O) Psychology

The study of behavior in work settings.

Informational Social Influence

Conformity based on the desire to be correct.

Multiculturalism

A perspective that recognizes and values cultural diversity.

Normative Social Influence

Conformity driven by the desire for approval.

Obedience

Compliance with commands from an authority figure.

Peripheral Route of Persuasion

Persuasion based on superficial cues.

Persuasion

The process of influencing someone’s attitudes or behaviors.

Prosocial Behavior

Behavior that benefits others or society.

Situational Variables

External factors influencing behavior.

Social Debt

A feeling of obligation to return a favor received.

Social Facilitation

Improved performance of tasks in the presence of others.

Social Influence Theory

The theory that behaviors can be influenced by others.

Social Loafing

The tendency to put in less effort when working in a group.

Social Norms

Expected behaviors that guide behavior in groups.

Social Reciprocity Norm

The expectation to return favors.

Social Responsibility Norm

The expectation to help those dependent on us.

Social Traps

Situations where self-interest leads to negative outcomes for everyone.

Superordinate Goals

Goals that require cooperation between groups.

Defense Mechanisms

Psychological strategies used to cope with anxiety.

Denial

A defense mechanism where reality is refused.

Displacement

Redirecting emotions to a less threatening object.

Ego

The part of personality that deals with reality.

Humanistic Theory

A perspective emphasizing human growth and self-actualization.

Personality

Characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Preconscious

Thoughts and memories not currently in conscious awareness.

Projection

Attributing one’s own unacceptable feelings to others.

Projective Tests

Tests revealing underlying thoughts through responses to ambiguous stimuli.

Psychodynamic Theory

A theory emphasizing the influence of the unconscious mind.

Rationalization

Justifying unacceptable behavior with excuses.

Reaction Formation

Behaving in opposition to one's true feelings.

Regression

Reverting to an earlier stage of development in response to stress.

Repression

Pushing painful thoughts into the unconscious.

Self-Actualization

The fulfillment of one's talents and potential.

Sublimation

Transforming unacceptable impulses into acceptable actions.

Unconditional Regard

Acceptance regardless of behavior.

Unconscious

The part of the mind that contains repressed thoughts.

Unconscious Processes

Mental processes influencing behavior below conscious awareness.

Agreeableness

A personality trait characterized by kindness and cooperation.

Big Five Theory

A model of personality including five key dimensions.

Conscientiousness

A personality trait characterized by organization and dependability.

Emotional Stability

The ability to remain calm in stress.

Extraversion

A personality trait characterized by sociability.

Factor Analysis

A statistical method identifying clusters of related traits.

Openness to Experience

A personality trait characterized by curiosity and creativity.

Neuroticism

A personality trait characterized by emotional instability.

Reciprocal Determinism

The theory that personality is shaped by behavior, environment, and cognition.

Self-Concept

The understanding of oneself based on thoughts and feelings.

Self-Efficacy

The belief in one's ability to succeed.

Self-Esteem

The evaluation of one’s worth.

Social-Cognitive Theory

A theory emphasizing cognition and environment in shaping behavior.

Trait Theory

The approach that focuses on identifying individual personality traits.

Approach-Approach Conflicts

A conflict where one must choose between two desirable options.