Unit 4 Cummulative

Actor/Observer Effect: The tendency to attribute one’s own behavior to external factors (situational attribution) while attributing others' behaviors to internal factors (dispositional attribution).

Attribution Theory: A theory that explains how individuals interpret events and how this relates to their thinking and behavior. It focuses on whether people attribute behavior to internal (dispositional) or external (situational) causes.

Dispositional Attribution: Explaining behavior based on internal factors, such as personality or character.

Downward Social Comparison: Comparing oneself to others who are perceived as worse off or less fortunate to feel better about oneself.

Explanatory Style: A habitual way of explaining events, either in a positive (optimistic) or negative (pessimistic) light.

External Locus of Control: The belief that outside forces, such as fate or other people, are responsible for the events in one’s life.

Fundamental Attribution Error: The tendency to overestimate the impact of personal disposition and underestimate the influence of situational factors when explaining others' behavior.

Internal Locus of Control: The belief that one controls their own fate through their actions.

Mere Exposure Effect: The phenomenon where repeated exposure to a stimulus increases an individual's liking for it.

Optimistic Explanatory Style: A tendency to attribute negative events to external, temporary, or specific causes, and to attribute positive events to internal, permanent, and global causes.

Pessimistic Explanatory Style: A tendency to attribute negative events to internal, stable, and global causes, and to attribute positive events to external, temporary, and specific causes.

Relative Deprivation: The perception that one is worse off compared to others, often leading to feelings of discontent or envy.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: When an individual’s expectations about someone or something lead to behaviors that cause those expectations to come true. 

Self-Serving Bias: The tendency to attribute positive events to one’s own character and negative events to external factors.

Situational Attribution: Explaining behavior by considering external factors, such as the environment or situation, rather than internal traits.

Social Comparison: The process of evaluating oneself in relation to others, either to make oneself feel better (downward comparison) or to aspire for improvement (upward comparison).

Upward Social Comparison: Comparing oneself to others who are perceived to be better off or more successful, often leading to motivation or feelings of inadequacy.

Belief Perseverance: The tendency to cling to one’s initial beliefs, even when presented with contradictory evidence.

Cognitive Dissonance: The mental discomfort that arises when a person’s beliefs or behaviors are inconsistent, often leading to a change in one to reduce discomfort.

Cognitive Load: The amount of mental effort being used in the working memory, which can influence problem-solving and learning.

Confirmation Bias: The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs or hypotheses.

Discrimination: Unjust treatment of different categories of people based on characteristics such as race, gender, or age.

Ethnocentrism: The belief that one's own culture or ethnicity is superior to others.

Implicit Attitudes: Attitudes or biases that are not consciously recognized but still influence behavior.

Ingroup: A group to which an individual feels they belong and with which they identify.

Ingroup Bias: The tendency to favor individuals within one's own group over those in other groups.

Just-World Phenomenon: The belief that people get what they deserve and that the world is inherently fair.

Outgroup: A group to which an individual does not belong and with which they do not identify.

Outgroup Homogeneity Bias: The tendency to perceive members of an outgroup as more similar to each other than they really are.

Prejudice: Preconceived negative judgments or attitudes toward individuals based on their group membership.

Stereotype: A generalized belief or assumption about the characteristics of a group of people.

Altruism: Selfless concern for the well-being of others, often leading to helping behaviors.

Attentional Variables: Factors that influence the focus of one’s attention, often playing a role in persuasion or social interactions.

Burnout: Emotional, physical, and mental exhaustion caused by excessive and prolonged stress, often in work environments.

Bystander Effect: The phenomenon where people are less likely to offer help in an emergency when others are present.

Central Route of Persuasion: Persuasion based on logic, reasoning, and evidence, usually resulting in long-lasting attitude change.

Collectivism: A cultural value that emphasizes the importance of group goals over individual desires.

Conformity: Adjusting one’s behavior or attitudes to align with those of a group or social norms.

Deindividuation: The loss of self-awareness and individual accountability in group situations, often leading to behavior that is more impulsive or deviant.

Diffusion of Responsibility: The tendency for individuals to feel less personal responsibility to act when others are present in a group situation.

Door-in-the-Face Technique: A persuasion strategy where a large, unreasonable request is followed by a smaller, more reasonable request.

Elaboration Likelihood Model: A theory explaining how attitudes are formed and changed, suggesting two routes: central (logical reasoning) and peripheral (emotional or superficial cues).

False Consensus Effect: The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share one’s beliefs or behaviors.

Foot-in-the-Door Technique: A persuasion strategy where a person first makes a small request, which is followed by a larger request.

Group Polarization: The tendency for group discussion to intensify members' preexisting views, making them more extreme.

Groupthink: A tendency for members of a group to suppress dissenting opinions in favor of consensus, which can lead to poor decision-making.

Halo Effect: The tendency for an overall impression of a person (positive or negative) to influence judgments about their specific traits.

Individualism: A cultural value that emphasizes personal goals, autonomy, and individual rights.

Industrial-Organization (I/O) Psychology: The study of behavior in work settings and the application of psychological principles to understand and improve productivity, performance, and satisfaction.

Informational Social Influence: Conformity based on the desire to be correct, often in ambiguous or uncertain situations.

Multiculturalism: A perspective that recognizes and values cultural diversity, advocating for inclusivity and equality.

Normative Social Influence: Conformity driven by the desire to gain approval or avoid social disapproval.

Obedience: Compliance with the commands or instructions of an authority figure.

Peripheral Route of Persuasion: Persuasion based on superficial or emotional cues, leading to more temporary attitude change.

Persuasion: The process of influencing someone’s attitudes or behaviors through communication.

Prosocial Behavior: Behavior that benefits others or society, such as helping or sharing.

Situational Variables: External factors that influence an individual’s behavior in a given situation.

Social Debt: A feeling of obligation to return a favor or kindness that was previously received.

Social Facilitation: The improved performance of tasks in the presence of others.

Social Influence Theory: The theory that the behaviors and attitudes of individuals can be influenced by the presence and actions of others.

Social Loafing: The tendency for individuals to put in less effort when working in a group compared to when working alone.

Social Norms: Expected behaviors and rules that guide behavior in society or groups.

Social Reciprocity Norm: The expectation that individuals will return favors or help others who have helped them.

Social Responsibility Norm: The expectation that people will help those who are dependent on them.

Social Traps: Situations in which individuals or groups act in their own self-interest, leading to a negative outcome for everyone.

Superordinate Goals: Goals that require cooperation between groups, helping to reduce conflict and promote harmony.

Defense Mechanisms: Psychological strategies used by the ego to cope with anxiety and maintain psychological balance.

Denial: A defense mechanism where a person refuses to accept reality or facts.

Displacement: A defense mechanism where emotional impulses are redirected from a threatening object to a less threatening one.

Ego: In Freudian theory, the part of the personality that deals with reality and operates on the "reality principle," balancing the demands of the id and superego.

Humanistic Theory: A psychological perspective that emphasizes human growth, self-actualization, and the inherent goodness of people.

Personality: The characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that make an individual unique.

Preconscious: In Freud's theory, the part of the mind that contains thoughts and memories that are not currently in conscious awareness but can be brought to consciousness.

Projection: A defense mechanism where a person attributes their own unacceptable feelings or thoughts to others.

Projective Tests: Psychological tests where individuals respond to ambiguous stimuli, with their responses revealing underlying thoughts or feelings (e.g., Rorschach Inkblot Test).

Psychodynamic Theory: Freud's theory of personality, which emphasizes the influence of the unconscious mind and early childhood experiences.

Rationalization: A defense mechanism where a person justifies or makes excuses for behavior that is considered unacceptable.

Reaction Formation: A defense mechanism where a person behaves in a way that is opposite to their true feelings.

Regression: A defense mechanism where an individual reverts to an earlier stage of development in response to stress.

Repression: A defense mechanism where painful or anxiety-inducing thoughts are pushed into the unconscious.

Self-Actualization: The realization or fulfillment of one’s talents and potential, often considered the highest level of personal development.

Sublimation: A defense mechanism where socially unacceptable impulses are transformed into socially acceptable actions or behaviors.

Unconditional Regard: In humanistic theory, the acceptance and love of an individual regardless of their behavior.

Unconscious: In Freudian theory, the part of the mind that contains repressed thoughts, feelings, and memories, which influence behavior.

Unconscious Processes: Mental processes that occur below the level of conscious awareness but still influence thoughts, feelings, and behavior.

Agreeableness: A personality trait characterized by kindness, cooperation, and compassion.

Big Five Theory: A model of personality that includes five key dimensions: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (OCEAN).

Conscientiousness: A personality trait characterized by organization, dependability, and attention to detail.

Emotional Stability: The ability to remain calm and even-tempered in the face of stress or adversity, the opposite of neuroticism.

Extraversion: A personality trait characterized by sociability, talkativeness, and a tendency to seek stimulation.

Factor Analysis: A statistical method used to identify clusters of related items (traits or behaviors) that can be grouped together.

Openness to Experience: A personality trait characterized by curiosity, creativity, and a preference for novelty and variety.

Neuroticism: A personality trait characterized by emotional instability, anxiety, and moodiness.

Reciprocal Determinism: The theory that personality is shaped by the interaction of behavior, environment, and cognitive factors.

Self-Concept: The understanding and perception of oneself, including thoughts, feelings, and experiences.

Self-Efficacy: The belief in one's ability to accomplish tasks and succeed in specific situations.

Self-Esteem: The overall evaluation of one’s worth, influenced by self-concept and self-worth.

Social-Cognitive Theory: A theory of personality that emphasizes the role of cognitive processes and environmental influences in shaping behavior.

Trait Theory: The approach to personality that focuses on identifying and measuring individual personality characteristics or traits.

Approach-Approach Conflicts: A type of conflict where an individual must choose between two desirable options.

Approach-Avoidance Conflicts: A type of conflict where an individual must choose between one option that has both positive and negative aspects.

Arousal Theory: The theory that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal for their functioning.

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflicts: A type of conflict where an individual must choose between two undesirable options.

Belonging: A basic human need to form relationships and be part of a group.

Boredom Susceptibility: A trait associated with individuals who experience dissatisfaction and seek novelty to escape boredom.

Disinhibition: The tendency to act impulsively or irresponsibly due to a lack of inhibition or restraint.

Drive-Reduction Theory: The theory that behavior is motivated by the need to reduce physiological drives (such as hunger or thirst).

Experience Seeking: A personality trait related to the desire to seek out new and varied experiences.

Extrinsic Motivation: Motivation driven by external rewards or outcomes, such as money or recognition.

Ghrelin: A hormone that stimulates appetite and plays a role in hunger regulation.

Hypothalamus: A brain structure involved in regulating essential functions like hunger, thirst, and body temperature.

Incentive Theory: The theory that behavior is motivated by external rewards or stimuli.

Instincts: Innate, fixed patterns of behavior that are biologically programmed.

Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation driven by internal factors, such as personal enjoyment or satisfaction.

Leptin: A hormone involved in regulating energy balance and suppressing hunger.

Lewin’s Motivational Conflicts Theory: A theory that describes conflicts people experience in motivation, such as approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, and approach-avoidance conflicts.

Motivation: The process that initiates, guides, and sustains goal-directed behavior.

Optimal Level of Arousal: The idea that individuals perform best when they are at an optimal level of arousal—neither too low nor too high.

Pituitary Gland: A small gland in the brain that controls growth and regulates various hormonal functions.

Self-Determination Theory: A theory that emphasizes the importance of intrinsic motivation, autonomy, and competence in achieving personal growth and well-being.

Sensation-Seeking: A trait associated with the need to seek novel and intense experiences.

Thrill and Adventure Seeking: A personality trait related to the desire for excitement and adventure.

Yerkes-Dodson Law: A theory suggesting there is an optimal level of arousal for performance, with both low and high levels impairing performance.

Affect: The experience of feeling or emotion.

Broaden-and-Build Theory: A theory of positive emotions suggesting that positive emotions broaden thinking and behavior, leading to personal growth.

Cognitive Appraisal Theory: A theory proposing that emotions are based on an individual's cognitive interpretation of an event.

Display Rule: Cultural norms that dictate how emotions should be expressed.

Elicitor: A stimulus or event that triggers an emotional response.

Emotion: A complex psychological state involving physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience.

Emotional Cognition: The process of recognizing, interpreting, and responding to emotional experiences.

Facial-Feedback Hypothesis: The theory that facial expressions can influence emotional experiences (e.g., smiling makes you feel happier).