Full Course Review: Exam Cram

Period One: 1491-1607

indigenous societies before european contact

• western: permanent settlements → fish, natural resources (eg. chumash)

• great basin: nomadic hunter-gatherers, buffalo, lots of land needed (eg. ute), farmers (eg. pueblo)

• mississippi river valley: farmers (rich soil), trade networks along mississippi (eg. mahokia)

• northeast: communal longhouses (eg. iroquois)

european exploration in the new world

• reasoning: gold, glory, god, alternative trade routes (muslims controlled land routes → search for alternative sea routes)

• portuguese exploration: new maritime technology eg. astronomical charts, astrolabe → sailed east

• spanish exploration: sailed west for access to asian markets, spreading christianity

• christopher columbus: return + stories of americas spark competition between european nations to explore new world

• english exploration/colonization: roanoke, jamestown, plymouth

• colonies → all other countries just established settlements

• the great migration: mass movement of puritans to the new world

• charters provide land, guarantee rights for settlers

the columbian exchange

• exchange of goods, people, ideas, and diseases between europe, the americas, and africa

• europe: gained maïze, potatoes, tobacco

• americas: disease, horses, cattle, pigs, sheep, sugar cane

• expanded diets, led to longer lives + better nutrition

• africa: increase in slave trade

• gold from new world to old world: feudalism → capitalism, changed exploration/ colonization (joint-stock companies)

labor, slavery, and caste in the spanish colonial system

• encomienda — forced labor + the black legend

• indigenous people forced to work plantations, mine gold → many escaped

• father bartholomé de las casas opposed this treatment

• indigenous peoples gained more sovereignty following the pueblo revolts

• replaced by african slavery (didn't die from smallpox, unfamiliar with land)

• development of the caste system: 1. native spaniards 2. new-born Spaniards 3. indigenous-spaniards 4. black-spaniards

cultural interactions between europeans, native americans, and africans

• african enslaved people sought autonomy, developed creole religions, and formed "maroon" communities of runaway slaves

• indigenous people respected land rather than treating it as a commodity to be bought + sold

• generally pantheistic, less controlling of female sexuality than european settlers

• mutual learning

• indigenous peoples taught english settlers to hunt + cultivate maïze

• english settlers gave iron tools to indigenous peoples

Period Two: 1607-1764

how different european colonies developed + expanded

• jamestown

• founded by Virginia co. — later became royal colony of virginia, chartered by james ii

• captain john smith, john rolfe, + pocahontas

• economy → tobacco

• plymouth

• founded by religious separatists

• pilgrims received help from indigenous peoples

• captain miles standish, william bradford

• massachusetts bay

• formed by puritans on a charter from the mass bay company

• persecuted under king charles i, fled with john winthrop during the great migration

• mercantilism: colonies ultimately serving for the [economic] benefit of the mother country

• smuggling emerges

• britain indifferent, still profiting

• house of burgesses: elected body of virginia, first democratic government in the us, bicameral

• mayflower compact: first governing document of plymouth (and america)

• act of toleration: guaranteed religious freedom to all english protestants

• new england confederation: mutual safety between mass bay, plymouth, connecticut, new haven; wrote a constitution in boston

• dominion of new england: administrative union of new england/mid-atlantic

• navigation acts: ensure that colonies provide resources to mother england, stop trade with dutch + spanish, new england colony, governor edmund andros

transatlantic trade

• columbian exchange → established african slave trade

• causes: perceived racial superiority, lack of indentured servants, indigenous peoples were more difficult to enslave, european need for goods

• effects: more land needed (conflicts with indigenous peoples), resistance of enslaved people (eg. revolts, running away, casual sabotage)

interactions between native americans + europeans

• bacon's rebellion

• uprising of western farmers v virginia → british government did nothing to protect settlers against indigenous attacks

• one of the first instances of colonial resistance towards britain

• pueblo revolt

• uprising against spanish colonization

• better treatment, more sovereignty for indigenous peoples

• king philip's war (aka metacom's war)

• occurred because the english threatened indigenous sovereignty (encroachment on lands) → dependency on britain

slavery in the british colonies

• see: transatlantic trade section

colonial society + culture

• enlightenment (aka age of reason): increased reason + science in religion > blind faith

• ben franklin → leader

• founding of georgia

• the great awakening: religious revival, partially in response to less excitement about religion after enlightenment

• traveling preachers (eg. george whitefield) spread good news + encouraged renewed energy towards religion

• would preach to anyone, including indigenous + enslaved people

• the zenger case: first instance of freedom of the press in america

• reasons for early colonial resistance: self government — parliamentary representation — enlightenment — differing views of liberty — religious independence/diversity — perceived corruption in the british government

Period Three: 1754-1800

the seven years' (french + indian) war

• mutual conflict between british + french → british encroachment on ohio river valley

• british (+ american colonists) win war, french are ousted from north america, louisiana territory goes to spain (paris treaty ends the war)

• british double territory + debt; must raise taxes — proclamation of 1763 following conflicts with indigenous peoples

the articles of confederation

• first + second continental congresses (1774, 1775)

• declaration of the causes and necessities for taking up arms

• george washington, benedict arnold

• called upon colonies to provide troops to congress

• states had already assembled their own constitutions + governments

• during the drafting of the articles, writers borrowed from state models (ratified 1781)

• put all federal power into legislature (only branch), no power to collect taxes or assemble a military

• one good thing to come from it – northwest ordinance of 1787 [see below]

policies leading to revolution

• proclamation of 1763: marked appalachian mountains as colonial divide, prohibited english colonists from settling on lands acquired by the french and indian war

• american revenue act (sugar act): curb smuggling of sugar + molasses by reducing previous tax rate + enforcing the collection of duties

• quartering act: required colonies to house british soldiers

• stamp act: placed taxes on newspapers, legal documents, + commercial documents → repealed in 1766 after colonial resistance

• declaratory act: stated that britain's taxing authority was the same in the colonies + britain

• townshend acts: imposed duties on british goods, led to colonists' boycott

• coercive (intolerable) acts: boston port bill (closed boston harbor until reparations for the boston tea party were made), massachusetts government act (abolished massachusetts' charter, replaced elected council with appointed), administration of justice act (british officials can go to britain/other colonies for trial)

• quebec act: gave quebec a governor + council, combined british + civil law

• olive branch petition: attempt by colonial loyalists to stop war with britain

• prohibitory act: cut off all trade between the colonies + england, removed colonies from british protection

the american revolution

• committees of correspondence: first colonial institution of keeping contact; established by samuel adams to spread word of resistance effort among patriot leaders in the colonies

• boston tea party: protest against british taxes on tea → patriots dressed as native americans and dumped british tea into boston harbor

• declaration of independence: written by the second continental congress, ratified in 1776; declared independence from england

• battle of saratoga + alliance with france: divisive victory for americans that gained french support of the revolutionary war

• treaty of paris: signed by king george iii and colonial representatives to end the american revolutionary war and guarantee independence for america

the creation + ratification of the constitution

• annapolis convention: address the shortcomings of the articles of confederation; only five states represented

• constitutional convention — revise articles of confederation, soon became clear that new constitution had to be written + instated

• connecticut plan — the "great compromise": establish a bicameral branch of the federal government to compromise between the new jersey + virginia plans (establishment of the house + senate — bicameral legislature)

• three-fifths compromise: enslaved people in the south would be counted as 3/5 of a person when tallying population

• federalists + anti-federalists: federalists in support of a strong national government, anti-federalists for states' rights and generally more of a direct interpretation of the constitution

• anti-federalists liked the articles of confederation → states rights, had just won independence from a highly centralized government

• federalist papers: written by hamilton/madison/jay; won debates by agreeing to a bill of rights

• dictates that if the federal government can't make a decision on something, it's left to the states → reserve of powers, 10th amendment

• economic policy: pro- vs. against national bank

• elastic/necessary improper clause (hamilton): congress can make any laws necessary + proper to functioning of other laws

• must regulate interstate commerce and consolidate post-war debts, thus a national bank is necessary + proper

• national bank established; binds states together + increases credit of us on an international scale

• democratic-republicans viewed the constitution as literal, nothing that wasn’t explicitly in it was beyond the realm of the federal government

• judiciary act

• establishes supreme court with chief justice, five associates

• court can rule on constitutionality of state decisions

• system of 13 district courts, 3 circuit courts of appeals

• federalism: sharing of power between federal + state government

• separation of powers: legislative, judicial, executive -> checks + balances

developing an american identity

• ben franklin's albany plan: create a unified colonial government → proposed at 1754 albany congress

• first continental congress: philadelphia 1774; delegates from 12/13 colonies discussed increased british aggression + planned colonial response, agreed to reconvene

• common sense: pamphlet by thomas paine suggesting that american independence was a matter of common sense → eg. Why should an island control a continent?

• declaration of independence: natural rights (life, liberty, pursuit of happiness), social contract (secure rights), government derives power from the governed, if it mishandles such power the people have the right to abolish/overthrow it

• shay's rebellion: farmers' uprising following post-war monetary debt crisis, articles of confederation provided inadequate federal power to address this + discourage more unrest

• george washington's farewell address: remain neutral in foreign affairs (isolationism)

• whiskey rebellion: hamilton wanted to increase tariffs on crops used in production of whiskey; farmers rebelled, attacking revenue collectors → george washington sent in 15,000 troops to dissolve the rebellion (display of federal power in an attempt to unify the nation, exploit weaknesses of articles of confederation)

• federal response highly contested by democratic-republicans

• xyz affair: french seized american trade ships, adams sent a delegation, french demanded a bribe before discussion, led to general outrage; both federalists + democratic-republicans agreed that this was an outrage, us' military defenses increased

• alien + sedition acts: passed after fear of war with france; restrict voting rights of immigrants and limited free speech + freedom of the press to create nationalism and support for the american government

• opposition from democratic-republicans: virginia + kentucky resolutions

• if the government passes a law that is clearly unconstitutional, the states can nullify it

• questions on slavery + revolts inspired by the american revolution

• free + democratic sentiment lead to renewed discussion on the morality of slavery

• women weren’t socially equal but republican motherhood = new purpose

• raising virtuous sons in the spirit of liberty

• inspired french revolution through emphasis on freedom + right of the people to consent to political leadership

• hatian revolution -> majority black population, enslaved people rise up + overthrow french colonial leadership through slave rebellion, establish own government

• use of art, literature, and architecture

• art: charles wilson piel, john trumble (painters; constitutional convention)

• literature: benjamin franklin's poor richard's almanac → shaped american identity as industrious and hardworking

• architecture: classical revival, eg. monticello

• enlightenment

• ideal 1: natural rights – people have inherent rights given to them by the almighty (life, liberty, property) -> they don’t come from a government (can’t give them/take them away)

• ideal 2: the social contract – power to rule is in the hands of the people; people relinquish some individual freedoms to the government so that it can provide safety + ultimately protect their natural rights

• ideal 3: separation of powers in government [see constitution]

• evident in common sense + the declaration of independence

immigration to + migration within america

• land ordinance of 1785: passed under articles of confederation → how lands west of appalachian mountains would be surveyed/sold (townships + sections now standard)

• northwest ordinance (aka ordinance of 1787): outlined process for admitting new states; would be equal to original thirteen states, abolished slavery in northwest territories

Period Four: 1800-1848

• market revolution

• westward expansion

• jeffersonian v jacksonian democracy

the rise of political parties

• federalists v democratic republicans — major conflicts

• barbary pirates interactions: required tribute to be paid for safe passage; washington + adams were alright, jefferson was morally opposed + quite literally paid the price eventually, but negotiated lower prices

• powers of the federal government: strict constructionism (nothing that isn't explicitly written in the constitution can't be done: dem-reps) v loose constructionism (constitution can't account for everything; necessary + proper clause, hamilton established national bank: federalists)

• expansion of US territorial holdings: Louisiana Purchase — Jefferson violates his strict constructionist principles, sends Lewis + Clark to chart northern territory (corps of discovery) and Zebulon Pike to explore the southern part. engaged in diplomacy with western indigenous peoples

• supreme court's place established: very little dictated by constitution, grows in power under chief justice john marshall

• marbury v madison: supreme court holds ultimate jurisdiction over what is constitutional → judicial review

• growth + realignment of political parties

• democratic-republican party forms a split — democrats (strict constructionists, in image of jefferson) v republicans (loose constructionists to become whigs, similar to federalists)

• whigs (henry clay) v democrats (andrew jackson)

american foreign policy

• claiming territory: established us-canada border at 49th parallel, joint us-british occupation of oregon territory, adams-onis treaty ceded florida to the us

• establishing authority in the western hemisphere: monroe doctrine — us has influence over the rest of the western hemisphere (south america), europe can fuck off

domestic policy

• tariff of abominations (1828): raised import taxes by 50% → protective tariffs benefited northern industry (people buy american-made goods), bad for southerners → relied on imports from other countries to maintain agricultural economy

• jackson's vp calhoun encouraged south carolina to nullify the law under jefferson's virginia + kentucky resolutions, jackson passes force bill → federal troops can be sent in to enforce the law

• bank war: jackson believed bus benefited the wealthy at the expense of the poor, vetoed its recharter

• indian removal act (1830): forcibly relocated indigenous peoples from their ancestral lands to oklahoma territory; trail of tears — some chose to go voluntarily, many did not

innovations in technology, agriculture, and business

• the market revolution — major technological advances

• cotton gin: sped up textile production

• interchangeable parts: workers perform same task over + over; basis of american manufacturing, lays foundation for mass production/consumption

• steam engine: put in boats (can now move up + downstream) → more accessible to buy/sell goods

• developing an american identity through language, philosophy, art, + religion

• transcendentalism: rooted in european perceptions of human perfectibility, beauty + power of nature; emphasized mystery + human passion, opposite of enlightenment (figures eg. ralph waldo emerson, david henry throwe)

• art: hudson river school — romanticized landscapes (new york, western territories)

• religion: second great awakening (see in reform section)

• government aid of the market revolution: pass legislation that makes transportation more efficient (eg. canals: erie canal), fosters independence for trade + knits country economically

• immigration: many settled on the east coast in manufacturing areas → urban immigrants influenced city structures, found industrial jobs, crowded living spaces (spread disease), established cultural traditions — ethnic enclaves

• rise of the middle class: growing prosperity, middle class emerges in north (eg. businessmen, doctors, lawyers — healthier, better standard of living)

• women's rights: cult of domesticity — men + women have different spheres to exist in; women need to bear children + provide home for husband/children

debates about federal power

• war of 1812: insults to national honor, impressment of american citizens to fight in british navy — popular war but opposed by federalists; hartford convention proposed that new england secede from the union, timing makes federalists look anti-american + out of touch, leads to demise of party

• henry clay's american system: unify the american economy through federally funded internal improvements, protective tariffs, and the second bus → gained opposition from south, eg. james madison (vetoed some provisions); great for american people but would disadvantage the south

• westward expansion: missouri applies for statehood, tallmadge amendment added as a provision → would join as a free state

• federal interests: new state benefits country — regional interests: increased tension over slavery

• goal: maintain balance of free + slave states in senate — solution: missouri compromise (compromise of 1820): missouri would enter as a slave state, 36'30" line would become the border, maine also joins as a free state

the second great awakening

• moral reformation of society > individual reformation; wilderness camp meetings → "vacations" for listening to preachers, egalitarian retreats, charles finney spread this to urban areas

reform movements

• universal white male suffrage: panic of 1819 due to irresponsible banking hits working class men hardest → couldn't vote (didn't own land) so couldn't hold politicians responsible for their economic situations, eliminated property requirement as had already been done in many western states

• temperance movement: american temperance society formed (complete abstinence from alcohol)

• abolition: william lloyd garrison — the liberator, american antislavery society, spread abolitionist sentiment through the north

• emancipation of enslaved people in the north, some states still restricted the rights of black people; in the south, abolition happened by black southerners rather than white → nat turner's rebellion (slave revolt); resulted in fear among slaveholders, restriction on slaves' rights, but enslaved people maintained culture + dignity by keeping family structures + engaging politically

• women's rights: seneca falls convention — declaration of sentiments based on declaration of independence, equality in education, law, and voting rights

the experience of african americans

• most white southern farmers were yeoman farmers → independent landowners, not rich enough to own enslaved people, but still believed in slavery + racial codes (social hierarchy)

• southern society defined by agriculture (cotton), cotton began leaching the soil of its nutrients → many white southerners move west to find more arable land

Period Five: 1844-1877

manifest destiny

• manifest destiny: americans had a god-given right to expand from atlantic to pacific — natural resources - economic opportunity - religious refuge (eg. mormons) - american institutions are "superior"

• facilitated by legislation — eg. preemptive acts: made land available for cheap for those willing to settle; gold rush spurs migration, southerners needed more arable land

the mexican-american war

• texas belonged to mexico, americans settled there → slavery was illegal, settlers must convert to catholicism; settlers rebel + become independent but seek american annexation, mexico warns that this will lead to war; disagreement over southern border → mexican-american war

• ended with treaty of guadalupe-hidalgo: establishes southern border as rio grande, mexican cession — gain a huge chunk of land in the west (new mexico, arizona)

• wilmot provisio: ban slavery in all new territories, ultimately struck down but indicative of growing tensions following westward expansion

attempts to resolve conflicts over the spread of slavery

• compromise of 1850: what to do on slavery in new territories? southerners — slaves constitutionally protected, missouri compromise should be extended to pacific rather than ending with louisiana purchase; free soil — all should be free territory; popular sovereignty: people living in territories can decide for themselves

• california + new mexico apply as free states — threats from southern legislators to secede

• compromise: henry clay divided mexican cession into parts that would decide for themselves via popular sovereignty, california would join as a free state, slave trade would be illegal in dc, stricter fugitive slave laws

• not all northers are abolotionists → many would prefer to ignore but this forced active involvement in support of slavery; causes contention + radicalizes many northerners

• kansas-nebraska act: nebraska territory divided in two, popular sovereignty (both above 36'30" line, violates missouri compromise) → overturns missouri compromise which had held scriptural authority — bleeding kansas furthers division

immigration

• mainly irish + german immigrants, maintain cultures via ethnic enclaves; irish mainly kept to urban areas whereas germans moved out west (midwest) to farm

• nativist backlash — nativism: native-born rights protected over those of immigrants, anti-catholic movement → know-nothing party to limit cultural influence

policies + events leading to secession

• differences in labor economies (north: paid industrial labor, south: agricultural slave labor)

• many northerners didn't object to the morality of slavery — undermines their ability to work for wages; free soil movement emerges: expansion of slavery is incompatible with labor of free workers

• abolitionist initiatives + developments — underground railroad, uncle tom's cabin

• constitutionality of slavery: southerners — constitution protected slavery (10th amendment: any law not dictated by federal government is given to states), combined with white supremacy makes enslaved people seem less human + fuels southern worldview of racial superiority

• dred scott decision: no real free/slave states anymore

• john brown's raid on harper's ferry, virginia: arm enslaved people + incite slave rebellion; southerners view this as the pov of all northerners rather than radicals

• political parties: southern democrats — protect slavery, northern republicans (whigs, free soilers) — contain slavery

the election of 1860 + southern secession

• if lincoln won, he would contain slavery rather than abolish it → southern pov: free states would grow + gain a political majority anyway

• southern secession: preserve slavery, protect states' rights over federal overreach, formation of the confederate states of america — convention in south carolina, unanimous vote to secede (1860) — sc, ga, fl, al, tx, ms, la secede — confederacy formed in 1861, president/vp jefferson davis + alexander stephens

the civil war

• south had better generals + got to fight a defensive war, but north had a greater population (urban manufacturing hubs), possessed industry + banks (manufacturing), railroads, lincoln → good leader, war to preserve union

• shifts scope via emancipation proclamation — military tactic, frees all slaves in confederacy to become a war against slavery → south would need british aid to win, but british had just gone through emancipation of its own and would not support an outright pro-slavery cause

• devastated southern infrastructure (sherman's march, scorched earth strategy from atlanta to savannah)

• union strategy: anaconda plan — choke out south (cut off resources with superior (existent) navy, control mississippi river to split south)

reconstruction

• 13th amendment: abolished slavery / 14th amendment: states must provide anyone within their borders equal protection under the law, citizenship for all naturalized citizens / 15th amendment: voting rights to black men → all men can [legally] vote

• south remained under occupation by northern troops to make sure these requirements are met, upsets southerners — republicans debate treatment of southerners (enemy or lost family member?) lincoln pushes for reconciliation but is soon assassinated → johnson supports south, opposes radical republicans' view of punishing the south → congress-dominated reconstruction process

• ultimate failure of reconstruction

• stifling of black growth economically via: introduction of sharecropping → bound to plantation, unlimited amounts of work, maintained agricultural economy; black codes: prevent black people from owning land, borrowing money, gaining economic independence; white supremacy: form secret societies to terrorize black people into submission (eg. kkk); plessy v ferguson: separate but "equal" facilities are constitutional

• northern weariness to come down hard on south — election of 1886 leads to compromise of 1887; democrats allowed rutherford b hayes (republican) to become president in exchange for federal troops to be removed from the south

Period Six: 1865-1898

the settlement of the west

• railroad united nation + creates a national market for goods; industry encouraged to mass produce, consumers encouraged to mass consume → government gives grants to railroad companies to expand + unify nation — economic interdependence

• farmers: greater market, dependent on railroads (monopolies → high rates at farmers' expense); response: populism + the national grange movement to mobilize farmers against trusts + monopolization

• interstate commerce act demanded reasonable railroad rates

• small farmers suffered due to mechanization → can't afford latest technologies, larger corporations benefit

• easier access to moving west via railroads, homestead act: cheap land grants to settlers seeking self-sufficiency; increased settlement leads to conflict with indigenous peoples

• "indian problem" addressed with reservation system — not correlated to cultural norms or ancestral grounds; met with resistance via ghost dance, sioux wars → indian appropriation act ends federal recognition of indigenous sovereignty, nullifies all prior treaties with indigenous nations; first war won by indigenous peoples, second lost

• assimilation: abandon native culture, turn to western culture

the "new south"

• some leaders wanted to increase industrial capacity, successful on some occasions (eg. steel, lumber, tobacco, textiles)

• maintained racial hierarchy — plessy v ferguson, jim crow laws, black codes, grandfather clauses, literacy tests; rights of black people no longer really protected despite legal grounds; terrorized by lynch mobs, kkk, but continued to resist

• ida b wells: wrote fierce editorials against lynching + jim crow, forced to move north to stay safe

• south integrated into national rail network; still agricultural, heavy ties to cotton, soybeans, sweet potatoes, and peanuts — economically dominated by north

the rise of industrial capitalism

• steel + oil industries were huge

• sherman antitrust act: regulated commerce (not manufacturing), outlawed trusts, aimed to promote fairness among business competitors

• social darwinism: applying survival of the fittest mentality to humans + socioeconomic classes

• contested by carnegie's gospel of wealth — it's the duty of the wealthy to provide for the poor + better society with their wealth

• westward expansion increased industrialist access to natural resources

• bessemer process: strengthened + improved quality of steel

immigration + migration

• new immigration + nativism: european farmers face poverty, europeans face overcrowding, unemployment, + religious persecution (america has opportunity, freedom, + improved transportation) — old immigrants (n/w europe) blended easily with american society whereas new immigrants (s/e europe) did not, sometimes returned home after making enough money

• irish, german, scandinavian, and chinese immigrants came in large numbers to escape poverty, religious persecution, and gain social mobility → america widely viewed as a land of opportunity (settle in urban areas; europeans form ethnic enclaves on the east coast, asian immigrants on the west coast)

• labor unions threatened because immigrants would work for cheap, undermining their demands

• nativism — american protective organization (anti-catholic), chinese exclusion acts to prevent chinese immigration to america, social darwinism (v. irish immigrants)

• some organizations try to offer help, eg. settlement houses (eg. jane addams — hull house chicago → teach english, provide education, legal services, find jobs)

• migration: duster movement — black people move from the south to the midwest to establish homesteads, largely unsuccessful

reform movements

• middle class gained strength through white collar work (middle management emerges), improves quality of life

• rise of labor unions: factory work exhausting + dangerous, all-day work, low wages; gather together for collective voice — knights of labor disappear after riots give them a bad name, american federation of labor becomes more popular in late 1800s/early 1900s

• homestead strike

• national grange movement: farmers become a minority → populist party, farming becomes more commercialized, small farmers couldn't compete with falling prices; independent + individualistic ideals present in farming had to this point prevented collective action → populists become involved with economics + politics to protect members against middlemen, trusts, and railroads

• social gospel: apply christian ideals to social issues — minister walter rauschenbusch: christianity x progressive reforms, encouraged middle class protestants to combat urban problems

• temperance movement: drinking viewed as the root of many problems; women's christian temperance movement + anti-saloon league; social gospel in continuity with the second great awakening

• socialism: equality for all following issues of gilded age (1870-1900), eg. eugene v debs

• populism: represent interests of farmers, concentration of economic power away from banks + trusts, omaha platform: direct election of senators — initiative + referendum activities — unlimited coinage of silver → all demands taken up by progressives later

• women's rights: women's suffrage, legal + educational equality; national american women's suffrage association (nawsa)

debates about the role of government

• the gilded age: national government faces inactivity, ignored issues + remains complacent and conservative, high voter turnout → strong party identification + loyalty

• democrats + republicans: continued pre-civil war beliefs, lots of corrupt/lethargic politicians, battles included patronage for civil service jobs (jackson's spoils system) → corrected by pendleton act of 1881: replaced with competitive civil service examination following james garfield's assassination by someone he didn't give a job to upon election

• gold standard: government won't print more money than can be backed up by gold — hold value against inflation, opposed by farmers who wanted more paper currency/silver coinage to pay off debts

• tariffs: protective tariffs loved by industrialists, opposed by consumers eg. farmers

• corruption in politics: urban political machines — eg. boss tweed, tammany hall: did help [especially immigrant] community members to win votes rather than from a kind place

Period Seven: 1890-1945

debates over imperialism

• frontier thesis (frederick jackson turner): expansion is critical to american identity, relieves urban tension; all parts of frontier are settled by 1890, closed by census bureau

• imperialists: expand beyond borders, manifest destiny, superiority of american institutions + whiteness, mission from God

• anti-imperialists: against expression → self-determination (life, liberty, pursuit of happiness) should apply to everyone, isolationists

• spanish-american war: easy win for us, cuba desirable territory for expansion; explosion of uss maine + yellow journalism — war with spain, beginning of american empire → acquire philippines, puerto rico, guam, hawaii, other caribbean/pacific islands

• teller amendment: congress authorizes war, us has no intent of political control over cuba

• platt amendment: us keeps naval bases in cuba + can intervene in cuban affairs to maintain order

• pan-american conference: establish better relations with south america by reducing tariff rates, establish pan-american union, goal of political + economic hemispheric cooperation

• invocation of the monroe doctrine: british-venezuelan boundary dispute, president cleveland threatens military force → latin america appreciates perceived protection, british- american relations improve

• open door policy: all nations should have equal trading rights in china; prevent us from losing access to china (others have already established influence)

• boxer rebellion: nationalism + xenophobia in china, crushed by international force → sum of reparations weakened imperial regime

• panama canal: roosevelt starts + ends panama's independence movement from colombia, construction from 1904-1914

• gentlemen's agreement: san francisco legalizes segregation of japanese schoolchildren, us agrees to stop of japan limits its # of immigrants coming in

the progressive movement

• muckrakers: investigative journalists who exposed corruption in american society, eg. upton sinclair (the jungle) — ida tarbell (history of standard oil company → rockefeller), alerted public to inequities + promoted reform, eg. meat inspection act

• efficiency in government: inspired by frederick taylor — scientific management aka taylorism, maximizing efficiency in manufacturing; progressives apply these tactics to government waste

• voter participation: increase turnout, secret ballots to vote without pressure; direct election of senators + initiative, referendum, recall: people can hold politicians accountable

• conservation + preservation

• pragmatism: practical approach to morals, ideals, and knowledge; experimentation with laws to find a well-functioning democratic society, rejected laissez-faire

• 16th amendment: established income tax

• 17th amendment: direct election of us senators

• 18th amendment: prohibition

• 19th amendment: women's suffrage

• federal reserve act: established national banking system with 12 district banks supervised by a federal reserve board

• clayton antitrust act: strengthened provisions of sherman antitrust act

• labor movement — square deal: 1902 coal strike, americans feared they'd freeze when winter came, roosevelt threatened to send troops in against mine owners if they refused to compromise, compromise: 10% wage increase, 9-hour workday, employers don't have to recognize unions

• the jungle: book written on the horrors of workers' experiences in factories, led to increased food safety through the pure food + drug and meat inspection acts

• socialist labor party/socialist party of america: welfare of the working class, more radical than progressives; 8-hour workday, pensions for employees, public ownership of utilities

• child labor act: prohibited shipment of goods produced by workers under 14

• new freedom: coined by woodrow wilson, limits big business + big government, support small businesses, + end corruption

• civil rights movement

key themes:

world war i

innovations in communication technology in the 1920s

the great depression + the new deal

world war ii

postwar diplomacy

Period Eight: 1945-1980

the cold war and the red scare

• berlin crisis — east v west germany

• rivalry between us + ussr

• mistrust began eg. eastern european nations → allies agreed that they would hold free elections there after the war, stalin kept them under soviet control to act as a buffer zone

• us views as threat to self-determination, democracy

• ideological + political division between europe → iron curtain

• us response: containment of communism

• truman doctrine, marshall plan

• nato: military defense pact to defend western europe

• reponse – warsaw pact: communist nato lol

• arms race: race to develop superior weapon systems

• korean war: after japan’s defeat, korea is divided in half (soviets, us)

• proxy war after north invaded south over communism v democracy – truman’s doctrine

• another red scare, house un american activities committee (huac) searches for communists in us – joseph mccarthy, mccarthyism → created hysteria surrounding claims of knowing communists

• formerly colonized countries → decolonization (esp in africa, asia, latin america), many need aid – us + ussr fight to help

• guatemala – us troops lead a coup against socialist government encroaching on us business interests

• iran – cia aided iranians in overthrow of socialist government, america dependent on oil → rewarded america with loyal prices

• vietnam war: indochina decolonized after fighting off china/japan, divided at 17th parallel; top is communist (ho chi minh), south is not; eisenhower gives millions of $ in economic aid to south vietnam, domino theory over spread of communism

• farewell address: beware of military industrial complex – american industry’s success is too tightly entwined with military sector, military decisions shouldn’t be dependent on economy + vise-versa

america as a world power

• post-war explosion in children, demand for houses increases in suburbs

• levittown

• middle-class move to suburbs of sunbelt states → warmer climate, increased economic opportunity, defense industry

• mass culture (homogenous) – rise of television, rebellion against conformity by artists (catcher in the rye), beat poets eg. jack carwack

vietnam war

• highly protested

• stopping the spread of communism in asia

• fundamental misunderstanding: america believed that the vietnamese were fighting for communism when in reality they were fighting for vietnam

• lyndon johnson, gulf of tonkin incident (allegedly, vietnamese ships fired on american ships)

• johnson does step-by-step escalation, never ends

• americans have turmoil over civil rights movement + anti-war protests

• secrecy + misinformation spread by johnson, perpetually “almost there”

• televised war → bloodbaths overseas lead to distrust in government

the great society

• struggles to create great society (expansion of new deal reforms); war on poverty

• democratic congress lets johnson pass essentially whatever he wants

• led creation of office of economic opportunity → self-help programs for impoverished americans (eg. literacy programs, vocational training)

• expanded great society to include medicare (government medical insurance for 65+), medicaid (health insurance for impoverished)

• immigration act: abolished immigration quotas

the civil rights movement

• segregation still prominent in south → allowed by plessy v ferguson

• judicial victory in desegregation in schools – brown v board of education, overturns plessy v ferguson in schools

• integration effort was still slow, only 2% integrated after 10 years

• montgomery bus boycott: rosa parks, martin luther king, jr

• nonviolent protests spark mass arrests, culminated in march on washington

• civil rights act (1964): discrimination based on race/sex/religion – illegal

• voting rights act (1965): prohibited racial discrimination in voting

• non-black civil rights movements

• latinos: laborers exploited, ceasar chavez organized them into boycotts + protests

• indigenous peoples: reclaim tribal traditions, achieve self-determination, + address systemic poverty – occupation of alcatraz island for 19 months, self-determination act in 1975

• women: betty ferdan’s feminine mystique – explored traditional housewife’s entrapment as subservient at the expense of her own needs; instrumental in founding of now (national organization of women), borrowed tactics from civil rights movement + secured equal rights/pay for women in the workplace → equal rights amendment would amend the constitution to prevent discrimination on the basis of sex

• lgbtq+ folks: gay liberation, police raid of stonewall inn, arrested people for being lgbtq+ → resistance, lgbtq+ status changes from mentally ill to legitimate sexuality i love women

youth culture of the 1960s

• anti-war protests

• counterculturalism: reject societal norms + cultural restraint therein, hippies

significant social/political/economic developments, rising distrust in government

• rachel carson: silent spring – expose how pesticides kill the land + world

• 1970 → congress creates environmental protection agency (epa) to regulate environmental impact + provide oversight to ensure that needs were met

• economic turmoil – recession of the ‘70s, stagflation (stagnation + inflation)

• watergate scandal: nixon reelected, men in his reelection campaign caught breaking into the watergate office complex (dfl hq) trying to bug phones, steal documents

• conservatism v liberalism in the supreme court

Period Nine: 1980-Present

reagan and conservatism

• reagan's campaign promises: reduce taxes — cut government spending — increase military resources — appoint conservative judges

• economics: reaganomics/trickle down/supply side — economic growth will occur with no business restrictions + lower taxes; consumers benefit from lower prices (laissez-faire), industry deregulated (eg. reducing emissions standards for auto industry)

• spending cuts: cut welfare programs, increase military spending

• appointed conservative judges: sandra day o'conner, antonin scalia, anthony kennedy → restricted scope of affirmative action, made abortion less accessible

the end of the cold war

• iran contra affair: us wanted to aid iran in war against iraq + secretly sold weapons to the contras; this profit was used to aid nicaraguan contras → illegal diversion of funds (congress has budgetary authority)

• buildup of nuclear weaponry: increased military spending, strategic defense ("star wars") program → scientifically impossible

• george hw bush: ends cold war, ussr dissolved; both us + ussr reduce nuclear warheads to 10,000 and eventually to 3,000

shifts in the economy

• bill clinton presided over changing economy → america's longest peacetime economic boom

• technological advancements, digital communication + increased productivity (further mechanization in industry + agriculture), rise of mobile devices + social media

• changing economy → service based as manufacturing is outsourced

migration + immigration

• 1986 – immigration reform + control act: fairer entry for immigrants into america, drew criticism for granting amnesty to mexican immigrants coming to the us illegally

• increased asian + hispanic immigration

challenges of the 21st century

• 9/11: war on terror started by george w bush, topple taliban government in afghanistan, takes longer to find + kill osama bin laden

• americans more willing to accept anti-terrorist initiatives, patriot acts (1+2) increased government surveillance of citizens via calls/emails/etc.

• renewed environmental concerns surrounding climate change: debate over fossil fuels (oil); climate change: brought to attention by al gore, the inconvenient truth that dependence on fossil fuel is going to kill us all sparked attention after iraq’s invasion of kuwait over oil led us into war with iraq