PSYC 1001 Exam 1

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Behavior

all of our outward/overt actions and reactions (i.e. facial expressions, movement, speech)

Mental Processes

all the internal/covert activity of our minds (i.e. thinking, feelings, and remembering)

Psychologist

a professional with an academic degree and specialized training in one or more areas of psychology

Basic Research

research for the sake of gaining scientific knowledge

Applied Research

research aimed at answering real-world, practical questions

Psyciatrist

a physician who specializes in the diagnoses and treatment of psychological disorders (has an MD).

Psychologist

a professional with an academic degree and specialized training in one or more areas of psychology (does not have MD).

Four goals of psychology

1. Description (what’s happening?)

2. Explanation (why is it happening?)

3. Prediction (when will it happen again?)

4. Control (How can it be changed?)

Theory

a general explanation of a set of observations and facts

William Wundt

1. the first to attempt the application of objectivity in psychology

2. attempted to apply scientific principles to the study of the human mind

3. believed that consciousness could be broken down into thoughts, experiences, emotions, etc., which created objective introspection

Objective introspection

the process of examining and measuring one’s own thoughts and mental activities

Edward Titchner

1. expanded on Wundt’s ideas and created structuralism

2. believed that objective introspection could be used on thoughts as well as physical sensations

Structuralism

the focus of study is the structure or basic elements of the mind

William James

1. interested in the importance of consciousness to everyday life than just its analysis

2. influenced by Darwin’s ideas of natural selection

3. objected to structuralism; created functionalism

Functionalism

the focus of study is how the mind allows people to adapt, live, work, and play

Max Wertheimer

1. created the concept of Gestalt psychology

2. objected to the idea that the mind/perceiving/sensing can be broken down into smaller elements and still be understood

Gestalt Psychology

“organized whole”/“configuration”; focused on perception and sensation, particularly the perception of patterns and whole figures

Sigmund Freud

1. a neurologist trying to figure out what was wrong with his patients

2. the “unconscious” or “unaware” mind; personality forms within the first 6 years of life

3. created the concept of psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis

an insight therapy based on the theory of Freud, emphasizing the revealing of unconscious conflicts; Freud’s term for both the theory of personality and the therapy based on it

Ivan Pavlov

Was a physiologist who figured out the process of conditioning

Conditioning

a reflexive response generated even though the usual cause is not present.

Watson

1. father of behaviorism

2. focused on observable behavior

3. created the “Little Albert” experiment

Behaviorism

the science of behavior

Skinner

Post-Watson; developed the theory of operant conditioning

Operant Conditioning

voluntary behavior is learned through positive reinforcement to certain actions – behavioral responses are reinforced

Maslow

Developed the humanistic perspective

Humanistic Perspective

the ability of the individual to direct and control his/her life, free will, self-actualization

Psychodynamic Perspective

modern version of psychoanalysis that is more focused on the development of a sense of self and the discovery of motivations behind a person’s behavior other than sexual motivations

Humanistic Perspective

the “third force” in psychology that focuses on those aspects of personality that make people uniquely human, such as subjective feelings and freedom of choice.

Cognitive Perspective

modern perspective in psychology that focuses on memory, intelligence, perception, problem solving, and learning

Cognitive Neuroscience

the study of the physical changes in the brain and nervous system during thinking.

Sociocultural Perspective

perspective that focuses on the influence of social interactions, society, and culture on an individual’s thinking and behavior

Biopsychological Perspective

perspective that attributes human and animal behavior to biological events occurring in the body, such as genetic influences, hormones, and the activity of the nervous system

Evolutionary Perspective

perspective that focuses on the biological bases of universal mental characteristics that all humans share

Critical Thinking

making reasoned judgements about claims

Four basic criteria for critical thinking

1. There are very few “truths” that do not need to be subjected to testing.

2. All evidence is not equal in quality.

3. Just because someone is considered to be an authority/has expertise does not make everything they claim automatically true.

4. Critical thinking requires an open mind.

Scientific Approach Steps

1. Perceiving the question

2. Description

3. Forming a hypothesis (testable educated guess).

4. Testing hypothesis

5. Drawing conclusions

6. Report results

7. If failed? Replicate/go back to hypothesis and rework it

Naturalistic Observation

watching the subject in their normal environment

1. advantage —> realistic picture of how behavior occurs

2. disadvantage —> observer bias, observer effect

Laboratory Observation

watching the subject in a controlled and regulated environment

1. advantage —> is a loophole for naturalistic settings that aren’t practical

2. disadvantage —> artificial situation may lead to artificial behvaior

Case Studies

study of one individual in great detail

1. advantage —> the tremendous amount of detail it provides, and it may be the only way to get certain kinds of information

2. disadvantage —> lack of generalizability; detailed observation is vulnerable to bias

Surveys

a way to ask about private behavior via a series of questions

1. advantage —> ability to get private information; a tremendous amount of data from a large group of people.

2. disadvantage —> must select representative sample; people won’t always be truthful; courtesy bias.

Experimenter effect

tendency of the experimenter’s expectations for a study to unintentionally influence the results of the study

Single-blind

study in which the participants do not know if they are in the experimental or control group

Double-blind

study in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know if the participants are in the experimental or the control group.

Ethical Guidelines in Psychology

1. Rights and well-being of participants must be weighed against the study’s value to science. (People first, research second).

2.   Participants must be allowed to make an informed decision about participation. (Researchers must explain the study to potential participants).

3. Deception must be justified.

4. Participants may withdraw from the study at any time.

5. Participants must be protected from risks or told explicitly of risks.

6. Investigators must debrief participants, telling the true nature of the study and expectations of results.

7. Data must remain confidential.

Nervous System

an extensive network of specialized cells that carries information to and from all parts of the body.

Central Nervous System

includes spinal chord and the brain

Peripheral Nervous System

autonomic (parasympathetic, sympathetic), somatic

Neurons

the basic cell that makes up the nervous system and that receives and sends messages with that system.

Dendrites

branchlike structures of a neuron that receive messages from other neurons

Soma

the cell body of the neuron that receives messages from other neurons.

Axon

tubelike structure of a neurons that carries the neural message from the cell body to the axon terminals, for communication with other cells

Axon terminals (aka presynaptic terminals, terminal buttons, synaptic knobs)

enlarged ends of axonal branches of the neuron, specialized for communication between cells.

Glial cells/glia

cells that provide support for the neurons to grow on and around, deliver nutrients to neurons, produce myelin to coat axons, clean up waste products and dead neurons, influence information processing, and, during prenatal development, influence the generation of new neurons.

Myelin

fatty substances produced by certain glial cells that coat the axons of neurons to insulate, protect, and speed up the neural impulse

Nerves

bundles of axons coated in myelin that travel together through the body.

What two types of communication are in the neurons?

• electrical communication (within the neuron)

• chemical communication (between neurons)

Resting potential

the state of the neuron when note firing a neural impulse

Action potential

the release of the neural impulse, consisting of a reversal of the electrical charge within the axon

Excitatory synapse

synapse at which a neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to fire

Inhibitory synapse

synapse at which a neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to stop firing.

Antagonists

chemical substances that block or reduce a cell’s response to the action of other chemicals or neurotransmitters.

• direct effects:

  • inhibiting/blocking neurotransmitters

• indirect effects:

  • decrease synthesis of neurotransmitters

  • decrease release of neurotransmitters

  • increase degredation/reuptake of neurotransmitters

Agonist

chemcial substances that mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of the next cell, increasing or decreasing the activity of that cell

• direct effects:

  • facilitating/mimicking the binding of neurotransmitters

• indirect effects:

  • increase synthesis of neurotransmitters

  • increase release of neurotransmitters

  • decrease degradation/reuptake of neurotransmitters

Saltatory conduction

action potentials only occur at unmyelinated spaces on the axon; the signal jumps from node to node.

• speeds up transmission

• conserves energy

Afferent Neuron (sensory)

a neuron that carries information to the central nervous system

Efferent neuron (motor)

a neuron that carries messages from the central nervous system to the muscles of the body

Interneuron

a “connector” neuron found within the central nervous system.

Multiple Sclerosis

• myelin sheath is destroyed.

• movement of action potentials along the axon may be slowed or stopped altogether

• Symptoms can include fatigue, numbness or tingling, muscle weakness, spasticity, lakc of motor coordination, vision problems, and bladder/bowl, sexual, and cognitive dysfunction.

Cerebellum

part of the lower brain located behind the pons that controls and coordinates involuntary, rapid, and fine motor movement and may have some cognitive functions.

• if damaged, you will be very uncoordinated.

Pons

the larger swelling above the medulla that connects the top of the brain to the bottom and that plays a part in sleep, dreaming, left-right body coordination, and arousal.

Reticular Formation (RF)

an area of neurons running through the middle of the medulla and the pons and slightly beyond that is responsible for general attention, alertness, and arousal.

Medulla

the first large swelling at the top of the spinal cord, forming the lowest part of the brain, which is responsible for life-sustaining functions such as breathing, swallowing, and heart rate.

Thalamus

part of the limbic system located in the center of the brain, this structure relays sensory information from the lowest part of the brain to the proper areas of the cortex and processes some sensory information before sending it to its proper area.

Hypothalamus

small structure in the brain located below the thalamus and directly above the pituitary gland, responsible for motivational behavior such as sleep, hunger, thirst, and sex.

Hippocampus

curved structure located within each temporal lobe, responsible for the formation of long-term declarative memories.

Amygdala

brain structure located near the hippocampus, responsible for fear responses and memory of fear

Occipital Lobe

section of the brain located at the rear and bottom of each cerebral hemisphere containing the primary visual centers of the brain.

Parietal Lobe

Processes information from the skin and internal body receptors for touch, temperature, and body position.

Temporal Lobe

Contains the neurons responsible for the sense of hearing and meaningful speech.

Frontal Lobe

Responsible for higher mental processes and decision-making, the production of fluent speech, and emotional control.

Consciousness

A person’s awareness of anything going on around them or inside their mind at any given time.

Waking consciousness

the state in which thoughts, feelings, and sensations are clear and organized and the person feels alert.

Altered state of consciousness

the state in which there is a shift in the quality or pattern of mental activity as compared to waking consciousness.

Sleep-wake cycle

also known as circadian rhythm, which is the cycle of bodily rhythm that occurs over a 24-hour period.

Role of hypothalamus in sleep-wake cycle:

it signals to the pineal gland to secrete melatonin, and it controls body temperature.

Adaptive theory

theory of sleep proposing that animals and humans evolved sleep patterns to avoid predators by sleeping when predators are most active (explains when we sleep).

Restorative theory

theory of sleep proposing that sleep is necessary to the body’s physical health and serves to replenish chemicals and repair cellular damage. (Brain plasticity is enhanced and sleep is critical for memory formation; explains why we sleep).

Most adults requires ________ hours of sleep a night. Sleep duration _______ with age.

7-9; decreases

Microsleeps

brief sidesteps into sleep that only lasts a few seconds.

Sleep deprivation

any significant loss of sleep.

Symptoms of sleep deprivation

trembling hands, droopy eyes, inattention, staring off into space, difficulty completing simple tasks, irritability, depression.

long term effects: increased risk for: insulin increase (precursor to diabetes), obesity, Alzheimer’s disease, psychological issues, depressed immune system, delayed onset of puberty, reduced longevity.

Rapid eye movement (R or REM)

stage of sleep in which the eyes move rapidly under the eyelids and the person is typically experiencing a dream.

• muscles are inhibited

• paradoxical sleep because the brain is sleep psychologically active

• more emotionally taxing day —> longer time spent in REM

• REM rebound —> increased amounts of REM sleep after being deprived of REM sleep on earlier nights.

Non-rapid eye movement (NREM)

any stages of sleep that do not include REM.

• spans from lighter to deeper, more restful sleep.

• body is free to move around.

• N1: light sleep (may experience hallucinations, will not know they were asleep, hypnic jerks (falling senation)

• N2: sleep spindles (bursts of brainwave activity that lasts 1-2 seconds), body temp drops and heart rate slows

• N3: Deepest stage of sleep, aka slow-wave sleep. Growth hormones released, body is at it’s lowest level of functioning

Sleep pattern across lifespan:

Infants spend an (about) equal amount of time in REM and NREM sleep, as you get older, the time spent in REM sleep significantly decreases.

Infants sleep significantly longer than full grown adults.

Sleep problems

REM:

1. Nightmares (bad dreams)

2. REM behavior disorder (muscles are not inhibited; people thrash around and act out their dreams.

NREM:

1. Sleepwalking (somnambulism)

2. Night terrors (person experiences extreme fear and screams/runs around during sleep without waking up.

Other:

1. Insomnia

2. Sleep apnea (you stop breathing for 10+ seconds)

3. Narcolepsy (person falls into REM sleep randomly throughout the day)

Freuds take on dreams:

dreams are a form of wish fufillment

Manifest content

what is literally occurring in the dream.

Latent content

the true, hidden meaning of a dream.

Activation-synthesis hypothesis

dreams are created by the higher centers of the cortex to explain brain activity during REM sleep periods.