medicine through time, facts

printing press

1440, johannes gutenburg

hippocrates

400bc

galen

162ad

the black death

1347, 40% of population died, ‘there are hardly enough living to bury the dead’

andreas vesalius

1540s, published ‘de humanis corporis fabrica’ in 1543

william harvey

1620s, published ‘an anatomical account of the motion of the heart and blood in animals’ in 1628

thomas sydenham

1676 published ‘observationes medicae’

the royal society

1665, a journal called ‘philosophical transactions’, king charles ii granted a royal charter to them

st batholemew’s hospital

1123

the great plague

1665, 69,000 dead in london

lady montagu

1721

edward jenner

1796

the industrial revolution

1830s

the cholera epidemics

1831, 1848, 1854

james simpson

1847, 11 weeks after first usage a patient died from it, queen victoria used chloroform in 1853

the first public heath act

1848

mary seacole

1854, ‘mother seacole’

florence nightingale

1854, reduced the death rate at scutari hospital from 42% to 2%

john snow

1854

louis pasteur

1861, published the ‘germ theory’

joseph lister

1867

the second public health act

1875

wilhelm röntgen

1895, won the nobel prize for physics in 1901

robert koch

1881, considered the ‘founder of modern bacteriology’

the discovery of blood groups

1901

national health insurance

1911

alexander fleming

1928

florey and chain

19389, penecillin was part of each soldier’s landing kit on d-day in 1944

the national health service act

1946

the first day of the nhs

1948

watson and crick

1953

william beveridge

1942

edwin chadwick

1842, the report that was published in 1848 was based on this report

joseph bazalgette

1965

microscopes

1700, further improved in 1850s and led to scientific breakthroughs in the 19th century

gerhard domagk

1932, discovered prontosil, the ‘second magic bullet’, which cured some types of blood poisoning

aneurin bevan

minister for public health and introduced the nhs

paul ehrlich

1909, coined the term ‘chemotherapy’, discovered salvarsan 606 to treat syphillis, the ‘first magic bullet’

laughing gas

1844

avicenna

980s, published ‘the canon of medicine’

the human genome project

1990

dolly the sheep

1996

the second reform act

1867

the barber surgeons act

1540

the dissolution of the monasteries

1536

florence nightingale’s notes on nursing

1859

the first battle of ypres

oct-nov 1914, 50,000 british casualties, ypres salient

st thomas’ hospital

1860

vaccination act

1853, children born after 1st august 1853 had to be vaccinated against smallpox

the world health organisation is established

1948

the who announces smallpox has been eradicated

1980

the second battle of ypres

april-may 1915, 95,000 british casualties, chlorine gas was used by the germans for the first time

how much time did soldiers spend on the firing line?

15%

the gallipoli landings

aug 1915, 115,000 british casualties, failure to delete turkey

the battle of the somme

july-nov 1916, 60,000 casualties on the first day, 400,000 casualties by the end, tanks used for first time but were ineffective

the battle of arras

april-may 1917, 700 beds in a hospital, hospital built into chalk cliffs for protection

the third battle of ypres

july-nov 1917, tried to capture passchendale ridge, 245,000 casualties

the battle of cambrai

nov-dec 1917, first time tanks were used by the british, no allied success, 40,000 british casualties

carrel-dakin method

sterilised salt solution (hypochlorus acid and boric acid) in wound through a tube, most effective antiseptic, solution only lasted 6 hours so had to be made as needed

thomas splint

reduced death rates from a broken leg from 80% to 20%,

evacuation route

1. stretcher bearers, 2. RAP, 3. field ambulance and dressing stations, 4. CCS, 5. base hospitals

stretcher bearers

recovered the dead and wounded, 4 men per stretcher, 16 per 1000 soldiers, carried basic supplies e.g. morphine, worked under fire

casualty clearing season

7-12 miles from front line, in large tent or huts, operating theatres, x-rays, performed more operations that hospitals by 1917

field ambulance and dressing stations

a large, mobile, medical unit with medical officer + nurses (1915), serious cases went to ccs

regimental aid post

poorly lit + under fire, soldiers split into lightly wounded and severely wounded

base hospitals

close to transport, operating theatre, laboratories, x-rays, patients got sent back to england

fany (first aid nursing yeomanry)

helped the wounded as ambulance drivers and nurses, originally rejected by the ramc, but allowed them to help in 1916, initial members: grace mcdougall and lilian franklin

harold gillies

new zealand surgeon who served in the ramc, ‘father of plastic surgery’, persuaded the british army to set up a facial care unit in the queen’s hospital in kent in 1917

harvey cushing

developed a surgical magnet to extract bullets from heads

the queen’s hospital

set up in 1917 in kent, had a special facial care unit

the brodie helmet

introduced in 1915

gas

caused less than 5% of all british deaths, tear (1914), phosgene, mustard and chlorine (1915) were all used

artillery

caused largest number of deaths (50%)

blood storage

in 1915, lewisohn discovered sodium citrate prevented blood clotting, increasing the no. of blood transfusions, adding citrate glucose (1916) and refrigerating the blood allowed it to be stored for several days, blood banks were created (in 1917 at the battle of cambrai there were 22 units of blood which robertson called a ‘blood depot’), keynes developed a portable machine for storing blood

ramc

ran the field ambulance which was a mobile unit of the ramc, all medical workers

herbal remedies

sage, hay, lavender, rose, often made by apothecaries

1. describe two features of… \[4\]

point, evidence, point, evidence

2. (a) how useful are sources a and b for an enquiry into… \[8\]

2. b) how could you follow up source a to find out more about… \[4\]

give a detail from the source, ask a relevant question, what type of source could you use to find out the answer, why this type of source would answer my question

3. explain one way in which…. was similar/different to… \[4\]

4. explain why… \[12\]

5. or 6. how far do you agree (most important factor etc.)? explain your answer. \[16 + 4\]

give four religious and supernatural methods that were used to prevent illness in the medieval times

living a christian life, chanting incantations, flagellation, carrying lucky charms

initial issues with x-rays

high doses of radiation caused burns and hair loss, large machines were too heavy to be moved easily, photography was at an early stage so taking x-rays required staying still for a long time

robert koch develops a steam steriliser for surgical instruments

1878

after _____ all surgical equipment was sterilised

1887

four features of aseptic surgery

operating theatres and wards were cleaned, surgeons and nurses wore sterilised clothing, sterilised cloths covered surfaces and equipment, surgeons and nurses wore masks to prevent breathing infection into a wound

doctors carried out blood transfusions from animals to humans but people rarely survived

17th century

james blundell performed the first human-human blood transfusions between

1818 and 1829

give three ways to treat lung cancer

surgery to remove the tumour or carry out a lung transplant, radiotherapy to try to shrink the tumour or prevent its growth, chemotherapy to try to shrink the tumour or to prevent the cancer returning

ways to prevent people smoking (tv)

tv advertising for cigarettes was banned in 1965, and for cigars and tobacco in 1991, all forms of advertising have since been banned

ways to prevent people smoking (buying)

tax on tobacco is regularly increased to make smoking more expensive, in 2007 the legal age for buying tobacco products was raised from 16 to 18, today shops are not allowed to publicly display tobacco products

cigarette packaging becomes standardised, all cigarettes are sold in green packets and with graphic warnings of the dangers

may 2016

fleming publishes his findings

1929

penicillin proves effective on mice

1940

first chemical copy of penicillin is created

1951

the us government funds 21 companies to mass produce penicillin

1941m

mass production of penicillin in us factories begins

1942

mass production of penicillin in british factories begins

1943

examples of high-tech medical and surgical treatments are

radiotherapy and chemotherapy, kidney dialysis, fitting pacemakers, organ transplants