neuro midterm

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92 Terms

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Neuron doctrine

  • developed by Ramon y Cajal
  • the brain is made of separate neurons and other cells that are independent structurally and functionally
  • info is transmitted through gaps/synapses
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Golgi stain

stain used to study brain cells that specifically takes neurons but not all neurons take it

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Nissl stain

stain used to study brain anatomy that stains whole cells and is not limited to neurons

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neurons

make up 10% of cells in the brain and function in computation

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glia

  • make up 90% of cells in brain function in support
  • provide nutrients to neurons and regulate/buffer extra cell space
  • structural framework for other type of cell in the brain
  • make myelin
  • guide other cells during development
  • capable of regeneration at high rate
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schwann cell

  • type of glial cell
  • make myelin in the PNS (peripheral nervous system) (travels through entire body)
  • found in axon
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oligodendrocyte

  • type of glial cell
  • make myelin in CNS (brain and spinal cord) (central nervous system)
  • connects to myelinated portion of axons
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astrocyte

  • type of glial cell
  • regulate extracellular space and blood/brain barrier (system the protects / keeps things out of the brain)
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microglia

  • type of glial cell
  • phagocytose
  • removes/ engulfs debris and dying/dead nerons
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synapse

  • where neurons connect to communicate
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synaptic vesicles

contain chemicals that can be released into the synapse

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axon

  • sends info to other neurons
  • has myelinated portions (w nodes of Ranvier)
  • inside is negative with respect to the outside
  • can be recorded from
  • where voltage - gated ion channels are found
  • AP’s move down it
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resting membrane potential

  • difference in charge between inside and outside of cell
  • Vm
  • uses Goldman equation to be calculated
    • takes into account that membrane is permeable to more than one ion
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depolarization

  • membrane potential becomes closer to zero
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cathodes

attract cations (-) are positive

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anodes

attract cations (+) are negative

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electrical current

  • the movement of a positive charge
  • determined by voltage and electrical conductance
    • driving force + conductance
  • when positive + there is movement out of the cell
  • when negative - there is movement into the cell
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Equilibrium potential

  • when the force of diffusion = electrical force
  • Eion
  • unique to each ion
  • Nernst equation used to determine its value
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-80mV

equilibrium potential (Eion) of potassium K+

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62mV

equilibrium potential (Eion) of sodium Na+

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driving force

  • net available force available to move across the membrane
  • 0 when the equilibrium potential is 0
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capacitor

  • planes that separate negative and positive charges
  • ex. membrane
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action potential

  • can be generated by
    • injecting + current
    • synaptic activity that releases transmitter that activates chemically activated channels
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threshold

  • value of membrane potential that elicits an action potential
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step 1

Na+ channels open Na+ rushes in

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step 2

  • depolarization/rising phase
  • K+ channels open, K begins to leave the cell
  • gNa > gK
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step 3

  • Na channels inactivate
  • Na influx stops
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step 4

  • K continues to leave the cell
  • causes membrane potential to return to resting potential
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step 5

  • after falling phase
    • where gNa < gK
  • K channels close
  • Na channels deinactivate
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step 6

  • undershoot
    • hyperpolarization
  • under membrane potential
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sodium potassium pump

  • maintain sodium/potassium gradient
  • kicks out 3 Na+, brings in 2 K+
  • brain used 70% ATP with these
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absolute refractory period

  • period after AP where it is impossible to shoot another AP
  • this happens because of inactivation of sodium gated ion channels after AP
  • 1-2 ms
  • during peak and downfall
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relative refractory period

  • period of time after an AP where another AP can be fired
  • second initiation requires stronger stimulus than before
    • needed to reopen inactivated sodium channels
  • right after other type of refractory period
  • during undershoot/hyperpolarization
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neurogenesis

  • stem cells residing in the adult brain divide and differentiate into neurons
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tetrodotoxin

  • TX
  • binds and blocks Na+ channels which can block AP’s (chart would be little bump but no AP)
  • makes eating pufferfish wrong lethal
  • fast acting poison, no antidote
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internal resistance

  • ri
  • current that flows along the axon
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membrane resistance

  • rm
  • how easily current flows in and out of the membrane
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saltatory conduction

  • involved in passive propagation
  • when current flows from node to node in the myelinated portion of the axon
    • AP’s happen in this node
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active propagation

  • how AP’s move down the axon
  • unmyelinated portion
  • slower due to constant firing of AP’s
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passive propagation

  • how currents AP’s move down the axon
  • myelinated portion of the axon
  • faster because AP’s happen at nodes
    • saltatory conduction
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gap junction

  • electrical synapses
  • ions flow from cell to cell
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chemical synapse

  • uses vesicles to release NT’s through a complex system
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pre synaptic

  1. vesicles store NT
  2. AP arrives at terminal button
  3. Voltage gated Ca++ channels open
  4. Ca++ enters terminal
  5. Vesicles fuse with membrane
  6. exocytosis
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post synaptic

  • ions flow in and out
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transmitter gated ion channel receptors

  • elicit EPSP’s
  • ionotropic receptors
  • bind to receptors that open Na+ channels
    • not voltage gated
  • hyperpolarizes when it elicits and IPSP
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G protein coupled receptors

  • metabotropic receptors
  • can open ion channels
  • can activate second messengers
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spatial summation

records multiple axons and adds EPSP’s

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temporal summation

records multiple AP’s on the same axon and adds EPSP’s

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animal research

  • good model for behaviors in humans
  • controllable conditions
  • organizational similarities in brain structures
  • simpler and easier to focus on certain aspects of neural behavior
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scientific laws

  • fact of the physical universe
  • exist until disproven
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theory

  • explanation that is broad in scope and supported by evidence
  • can include laws
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hypothesis

  • proposed explanation from an observed phenomenon
  • testable and falsifiable
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negative control

group in an experiment where no effect is found from a given placebo

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positive control

group in an experiment where an effect is expected from a known substance

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lesions

  • when a part of the brain is taken out/destroyed to learn its effects
  • ablation - destruction
  • one technique used to do this is lasers (RF) that can cause electrical destruction of certain parts of the brain
  • Pros: Provides strong evidence for the necessity of a brain structure for a process
  • Cons: does not actually investigate the function of the brain region, just what everything else can do without it
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intraperitoneal

  • ip
  • drugs administered through the abdominal cavity
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subcutaneous

  • sc
  • drugs administered under the skin
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intravenous

  • iv
  • drugs administered into vein
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intracerebral

  • ic
  • drugs administered into brain tissue
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intracerebroventricular

  • icv
  • drugs administered into the ventricle
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implant

  • drugs administered by something placed into skin/ body
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transdermal

  • drugs administered through the skin
  • ex. nicotine or testosterone patch
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oral

  • drugs administered through the mouth
    • ex. pills
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stereotaxic surgery

  • uses a stereotaxic atlas to input certain coordinates on the brain and target certain areas using electrodes
    • stereotaxic apparatus - used to place electrodes into brain
    • bregma - juncture of coronal and sagittal suture (point 0)
    • cannula - rods placed into brain (cannot be felt by patient)
  • pros:
  • cons:
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electrophysiology

  • measures brain activity in animals using electrodes
    • macroelectrodes - records many neurons
    • microelectrodes- records only one neuron
  • pros:
  • cons:
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immediate early genes

  • uses antibodies to label proteins in the brain in response to stimuli
  • c-fos
  • pros:
  • cons:
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MRI

  • snapshot of the brain at a certain point in time
  • pros: noninvasive can be used on humans
  • cons: only gives a snapshot of the brain and doesn’t study brain activity
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EEG

  • electroencephalogram
  • measures real time brain activity
  • macroelectrodes on the skull
  • pros: real time measurements, very mobile
  • cons: restricted to outermost layer of the cortex
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FMRI

  • looks for increase in blood oxygen level to study brain function
  • pros: can look at entire brain, non invasive
  • cons: complete immobilization and delay
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in situ hybridization

  • used to detect MRNA at a cellular level one gene at a time
  • brain section exposed to radioactively labeled RNA probe
  • pros: cellular resolution
  • cons: time consuming, one gene at a time
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siRNA

  • Create a piece of RNA and inject it into the brain; the siRNA recognizes the strand of mRNA of interest, and destroys it such that it cannot be translated for protein expression
  • cons: potential off-target effects
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microarrays

  • grind up tissue; extract RNA; reverse transcribe to become DNA; fluorescently label; add to microarray chip; DNA binds to complementary strand on chip; ratio of different samples shows ratio of gene expression
  • pros: can assay of 1000’s of genes
  • cons: no cellular resolution, expensive
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imunocytochemistry

  • studying cellular proteins
  • in tissue slices, antibodies recognize the protein they are targeted against; label fluorescently to see under confocal
  • pros: cellular resolution, double label proteins
  • cons: time consuming, not as quantitative
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ligands

activate receptors

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agonists

drug that activated receptors

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antagonists

drug that blocks receptors

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knock out mice

  • removes a gene to be studied
  • Knockout the gene in the mice embryo; no mRNA and therefore no protein products are made from
  • cons: May Interacts with other processes we want to control for
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conditional knock outs

  • specific times (age) and specific tissue (area) where gene is knocked out
  • pros: doesn’t disrupt as much the developmental process
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optogenetics

  • uses light to activate/ inhibit neurons
  • Use virus to inject a channel (eg. Rhodopsin 2/halorhodopsin); simulate with blue/yellow light to activate/inhibit neurons via ion flow
  • pros: Allows for bidirectional control of the neural activities simultaneously / allows for real-time investigation of function of neurons in behavior
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twin studies

  • monozygotic - same egg (identical)
  • dizygotic - (fraternal)
  • concordant - when both twins have the same disorder
  • used to study genetic effect on certain diseases
  • pros: Allows for the disentanglement of shared genetic and environmental factors for the trait of interest
  • cons: many confounding variables
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adoption studies

  • used to study the effect of environmental factors
  • pros: Allows for the disentanglement of shared genetic and environmental factors for the trait of interest
  • cons: information about biological parents isn’t always available
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neurotransmitter

  • localized in neurons
  • synthesized by neurons
  • released by neurons
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acetylcholine

  • NT of neuromuscular junctions
  • motor neuron synapses
  • Ach
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ach agonists

  • physostigmine
  • black widow spider venom
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ach antagonists

  • botulinum toxin
  • myasthenia gravis
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dopamine

  • NT that assists in movement, attention, learning, addiction, and reward
  • cocaine is an agonist
  • methylphenyl (Ritalin) is an agonist
  • chlorpromazine is an antagonist
  • amphetamine both increases activity and release of this NT
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catecholamines

  • type of NT
    • dopamine (DA)
    • norepinephrine (NE) - assists in attention
    • epinephrine (Epi) - adrenaline
  • bind to alpha and beta renergic receptors
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indolamides

  • serotonin (5-HT)
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serotonin

  • NT involved in mood, eating, sleeping, and arousal
  • antagonist is fluoxetine (Prozac)
  • agonists: LSD, Ecstasy/Molly (stimulates release, inhibits uptake), Psilocybin (mushrooms) >> Psilocin (binds to receptors
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amino acid neurotransmitters

  • small
  • allylglycine
    • inactivates GAD
    • used to make experimental animal models for epilepsy
  • Glutamate - often excitatory
  • GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) - often inhibitory
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Neuropeptides

  • bind to opioid receptors: opium, morphine, heroin
  • endogenous opioids
    • enkephalins (involved in reward pathway and pain reduction [analgesia])
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reward pathway

  • projection of (in this case) dopamine neurons from VTA to NA