AP Psych Unit 4 2024-25

Attribution

The process of explaining the causes of behaviors and events.

Internal Attribution

Assigning the cause of behavior to personal factors such as traits, abilities, or feelings.

External Attribution

Assigning the cause of behavior to external factors such as the situation or environment.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overemphasize internal factors and underestimate external factors when explaining others' behaviors.

Actor/Observer Bias

The tendency to attribute one's own actions to situational factors while attributing others' actions to personal traits.

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to attribute positive events to internal factors and negative events to external factors.

False Consensus Effect

The belief that one's own opinions and behaviors are more common than they actually are.

Just World Hypothesis

The belief that the world is fair and people get what they deserve.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one's preexisting beliefs.

Halo Effect

The tendency for an impression created in one area to influence opinions in another area.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

A prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

A theory of persuasion that describes how attitudes are formed and changed.

Central Route to Persuasion

Persuasion that occurs when people think carefully about the message and are influenced by the strength of its arguments.

Peripheral Route to Persuasion

Persuasion that occurs when people focus on superficial cues rather than the actual content of the message.

Foot-in-the-door

A persuasive technique that involves getting a person to agree to a large request by first setting them up with a smaller request.

Door-in-the-face

A persuasive technique that involves making a large request that will likely be refused, followed by a smaller request.

Low-ball

A persuasive technique wherein a seller quotes a low price to attract customers but then raises the price.

Ingratiation

A strategy used to gain favor or approval from others by being ingratiating or flattering.

Cognitive Dissonance

The discomfort experienced when holding conflicting thoughts or beliefs.

Mere Exposure Effect

The tendency to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar.

Conformity

Changing one's behavior or beliefs to match those of the group.

In-group

A social group to which a person identifies as being a member.

Out-group

A social group with which an individual does not identify.

In-group bias

The tendency to favor one's own group over other groups.

Solomon Asch’s Conformity Experiment

An experiment to study the effects of group pressure on individual judgment.

Factors influencing conformity

Variables that affect the level of conformity such as group size, unanimity, and cohesion.

Obedience

Following direct orders from an authority figure.

Stanley Milgram’s Obedience Study

A series of experiments that measured the willingness of participants to obey an authority figure.

Factors to Promoting Obedience

Elements such as proximity, legitimacy of authority, and a lack of personal responsibility that encourage obedience.

Effects of Belmont Report (1979)

Guidelines for ethical research involving human subjects, emphasizing respect, beneficence, and justice.

Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment

A psychological study on the effects of perceived power in a simulated prison environment.

Bystander Effect

The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help a victim when other people are present.

Diffusion of Responsibility

A social phenomenon where individuals feel less of a personal obligation to act when others are present.

Kitty Genovese

A case that brought attention to the bystander effect after her murder while witnesses did not intervene.

Deindividuation

The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations.

Group Think

A phenomenon in group decision-making characterized by a tendency for harmony and conformity.

Group Polarization

The tendency for group discussion to amplify the initial leanings of group members.

Personality

An individual's characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and behavior.

4 Basic Perspectives on Personality

Different approaches to understanding personality, including psychoanalytic, trait, humanistic, and social-cognitive.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

A motivational theory consisting of a five-tier model of human needs, from basic to self-actualization.

Theory of Motivation

Concepts explaining what drives individuals to take action or behave in certain ways.

Self-Actualization

The realization or fulfillment of one's talents and potential.

Carl Rogers

A humanistic psychologist best known for his person-centered approach.

Unconditional Positive Regard

Accepting and respecting others as they are without judgment.

Conditions of Worth

Conditions under which individuals perceive that they are valued by others.

Congruence of self/image

The alignment between a person's self-concept and their experiences.

Psychoanalytic Perspective of Personality

A psychological theory that focuses on unconscious motivations and conflicts.

Id

The part of the mind that contains basic instincts and desires.

Ego

The rational part of the mind that mediates between the desires of the id and the constraints of reality.

Super Ego

The part of the mind that reflects the internalization of cultural rules and ideals.

Karen Horney/Womb Envy

A theory proposing that men experience envy related to women's ability to bear children.

Self-Efficacy

Belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations.

Reciprocal Determinism

The theory that a person's behavior is influenced by personal factors and social environment.

Social Cognitive Perspective on Personality

An approach that emphasizes the role of observational learning, social experiences, and personal beliefs.

Trait

A characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act.

Trait Theory

A psychological theory that focuses on identifying and measuring individual personality characteristics.

McCrae and Costa’s Five Factor Model

A widely accepted model of personality that includes five traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

Raymond Cattell’s 16 Personality Factors

A model that describes personality in terms of 16 different primary traits.

Hans Eysenck’s Theory of Personality

A theory that categorizes personality based on three traits: extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism.

Motivation

The process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors.

Various Theories on Motivation

Different frameworks for understanding what motivates individuals, including biological, psychological, and social factors.

Instinct

An innate, typically fixed pattern of behavior in animals in response to stimuli.

Homeostasis

The tendency of a system to maintain internal stability.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

The principle that performance improves with arousal up to an optimal point.

Emotion

Complex psychological states that involve subjective experience, physiological response, and behavioral or expressive response.

Appraisal

The evaluation of the significance of a particular situation, event, or experience.

Various Theories of Emotion

Different perspectives on how emotions are produced and experienced. Examples include James Lange, Cannon-Bard, Schachter’s Two-Factor, and Cognitive Appraisal.

James Lange

A theory of emotion proposing that emotions occur as a result of physiological reactions to events.

Cannon-Bard

A theory of emotion that states arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously.

Schachter’s Two-Factor

Theory that emotion is based on physiological arousal and cognitive labeling of that arousal.

Cognitive Appraisal

An evaluation of the significance and meaning of a situation, which influences emotion and response.

Primary / Secondary Appraisal

Primary appraisal evaluates the threat level, while secondary appraisal assesses one's resources to cope.

LeDoux’s Theory of Emotion

A theory suggesting that emotional responses can occur before cognitive appraisal.

Display Rules

Culturally specific rules that govern how and when emotions are expressed.

Micro-Expressions

Brief, involuntary facial expressions that reveal genuine emotions.

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

The theory that facial expressions can influence emotional experiences.

Acute/Chronic Stress

Acute stress is short-term, while chronic stress is prolonged and can lead to health problems.

Distress/Eustress

Distress is negative stress that can be harmful, while eustress is positive stress that can motivate.

Conflict and 3 Types

Approaches to dealing with conflict include approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, and approach-avoidance.

General Adaptation Syndrome

The three-stage response of the body to stress: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

Health Implications of Chronic Stress

Long-term stress can lead to various health issues, including heart disease and weakened immune response.

Dispositional vs Internal qualities

Dispositional traits are consistent across situations, while internal qualities may change.

Explanatory Style

A person's characteristic way of explaining outcomes, often categorized as optimistic or pessimistic.

Social Norms

Expected standards of conduct within a society or group.

Social Influence Theory

A perspective that examines how individuals change their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in response to social dynamics.

Persuasion

The process of convincing someone to change their beliefs or behavior.

Ego Defence Mechanisms

Psychological strategies used unconsciously to protect oneself from anxiety arising from unacceptable thoughts or feelings.

Projective Tests

Psychological tests that reveal the hidden emotions and internal conflicts of an individual.

Superordinate Goals

Shared goals that require cooperation between individuals and groups.

Social Traps

Situations in which individuals or groups act in their own self-interest to the detriment of the group.

Altruism

The selfless concern for the well-being of others.

Broaden and Build Theory

A theory suggesting that positive emotions broaden an individual's awareness and encourage novel thoughts and actions.