APES final review

scientific method steps

1. make observations
2. ask questions
3. develop a hypothesis
4. make predictions
5. test/experiment
6. analyze and interpret data

manipulative experiment

researcher actively chooses and manipulates independent variables

→ provides casual relationships

natural experiment

compares 2 natural environments

→ provides correlation relationships

environment

all the things around us which we interact (living, non-living, what we have built, relationships, etc.)

environmentalism

social movement; protect the natural world against humans

environmental science

study of how the natural world works and humans vs. environment

hunter-gatherer

gain food by collecting plants and hunting animals
→ native american tribes hunted buffalo and burned prairies which prevented tree growth

agricultural revolution

grow crops
raise domestic animals
live sedentary lives in villages
→ humans live longer and produce more children who survived to adulthood

industrial revolution

urban society powered by fossil fuels
improvements in sanitation, medical technology,
enhanced agricultural production
synthetic pesticides & fertilizers→ population increase

renewable resources

a resource that can be renewed
ex : solar, wind

nonrenewable resources

a resource that cannot be replaced
ex : metals fossil fuels

overshoot

when a population becomes larger than the environment's carrying capacity

agricultural problems

converted 1/2 of planet's surface for agriculture
chemical fertilizers and pesticides
erosion, climate change, bad irrigation use 5-7 million hectares

pollution problems

dirties water, land, air → deaths of millions

climate change problems

carbon dioxide & other gases warm Earth → melt glaciers, sea rises, destructive weather

biodiversity environmental problems

declining, in 6th mass extinction

millenium ecosystem assessment

1. humans have altered ecosystems
2. degraded ecosystems for increased well-being and economic development
3. ecosystem degradation will get worse
4. degradation can be reversed

sustainable development

organic agriculture
soil conservation
high-efficiency irrigation
protect habitat, slow extinction, safeguard endangered species
recycling
alternative renewable energy source

triple bottom line

strategy that includes social, economic, and environmental goals

cornucopians

believe that people will find a way to solve the overpopulation problem

cassandras

a worldview that predicts doom and disaster as a result of our environmental impacts

easter island

example of how humans can degrade ecosystems to a point that civilization collapses

ethics

the study of good and bad, right and wrong

relativist

an ethicist who maintains that ethics do and should vary with social context

universalist

an ethicist who maintains that there exist objective notions of right and wrong that hold across cultures and situations

environmental ethics

the application of ethical standards to relationships between humans and their environment

anthropocentrism

viewing the world in terms of human values and experience

biocentrism

life centered environmental ethics

ecocentrism

belief that whole ecological systems have value

economy

systems that converts resources into goods and services

subsistence economy

a type of economy in which human groups live off the land with little or no surplus

capitalist economy

an economic system in which the market determines production, distribution, and price decisions, and property is privately owned

centrally planned economy (socialism)

an economy in which the government decides how economic resources will be allocated

preservationist

protect nature and environment because all life deserves respect

conservationist

one who advocates the conservation of natural resources
use but don't overuse

ecofeminism

view that patriarchal ideology is at the center of our present environmental malaise

environmental justice

the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies

ecosystem services

the processes by which life-supporting resources such as clean water, timber, fisheries, and agricultural crops are produced

neoclassical economics

consumer preferences drive production of goods

neoclassical economics assumptions

resources are infinite or substitutable
costs and benefits are internal
long-term effects should be discounted
growth is good

intrinsic value

value independent of any benefit to humans

utilitarian value

a value derived from a product or service that helps the consumer solve problems and accomplish tasks

GDP

measurement of the total goods and services produced within a country (internal costs)

GPI

measure of economic status that includes personal consumption, income distribution, levels of higher education, resource depletion, pollution, and the health of the population (includes external costs)

market failure

a situation in which the market does not distribute resources efficiently

green taxes

penalties on environmentally harmful activities or products

ecolabeling

a labeling system that tells consumers which brands are made with processes that do not harm the environment

environmental economics

the field of economics that links environmental and economic costs

ecological economics

the study of economics as a component of ecological systems

policy

formal plans to address problems
laws
regulations

goals of public policy

advance societal welfare

goals of environmental policy

regulate resource use or reduce pollution to promote human welfare and/or protect natural resources

legislative branch

congress (senate and house of representatives)
create legislation

executive branch

president
carries out laws

judicial branch

courts
interpret law

5th amendment

private property won't be taken for public use without compensation
bans regulatory taking

14th amendment

prohibits denial of equal protection of laws to any person

goals of enacting environmental policy

prevent market failure
protect environment and its natural resources
equity in resource use

free rider

a person who receives the benefit of a good but avoids paying for it

first wave of environmental policy

resources readily available
goal : encourage westward expansion; promote use of resources

second wave of environmental policy

protect natural resources
goal : mitigate problems of westward expansion

third wave of environmental policy

technology, resource consumption cause pollution
goal : reduce pollution

fourth wave of environmental policy

sustainability; human action

montreal protocol

phase out of ozone depleting substances (CFCs)

kyoto protocol

controlling global warming by setting greenhouse gas emissions targets for developed countries

paris agreement

reduce greenhouse gases in all nations

command and control

punishment for violating rules and limits

subsidy

government payment to encourage or protect a certain economic activity

cap and trade/permit trading

permits allotted for environmentally harmful activities

tax breaks

provisions of the tax code that reduce the amount of tax that is owed

directional selection

occurs when natural selection favors one of the extreme variations of a trait

stablizing selection

individuals with the average form of a trait have the highest fitness

disruptive selection

form of natural selection in which a single curve splits into two; occurs when individuals at the upper and lower ends of a distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals near the middle

k-selected species

large size
slow development
long-lived
reproduction later in life
slow growth rate
strong competitive ability
close to carrying capacity
constant and predictable mortality

r-selected species

small size
fast development
short lived
reproduce early
many small offspring
fast growth rate
no parental care
weak competitive ability
below carrying capacity
variable and unpredictable mortality

population density

number of individuals per unit area

random distribution

organisms arranged in no particular pattern

uniform distribution

distribution where populations are spaced evenly

clumped distribution

individuals are found in groups or patches within the habitat

sex ration

the ratio of males to females
ideal : 50-50

age distribution

relative number of organisms of each age within a population

crude birth/death rate

number of births (deaths) per 1000 individuals per year

biotic potential

the potential growth of a population if it could grow in perfect conditions with no limiting factors

density-dependent limiting factors

limiting factor that depends on population size

density-dependent limiting factors examples

competition, predation, herbivory, parasitism, disease, and stress from overcrowding

density-independent limiting factors

limiting factor that affects all populations in similar ways, regardless of population size

density-independent limiting factors examples

severe weather, natural disasters, and human activities

natural selection

survival of the fittest

adaptations

traits that improve an individual's ability to survive and reproduce

selective breeding

the human practice of breeding animals or plants that have certain desired traits

allopatric speciation

geographic isolation

sympatric speciation

reproductive isolation within same area due to different communication, different mating times, etc

more likely to extinction

small populations
specialized species
endemic species

specialized species

narrow niche

endemic species

species that are native to and found only within a limited area

background extinction rate

the average rate at which species go extinct over the long term
ideal : one extinct at a time

habitat

where an organism lives

niche

organisms role in an ecosystem

generalists

species with broad niches

population size

the total number of individuals within a defined area at a given time