field experiments and the comparative method

• Given the limitations of what method?, sociologists have developed two alternative methods.

• These follow the same l_____ in seeking to identify c____, but they aim to overcome the what issues?

• what are the 2 methods?

• Given the limitations of laboratory experiments, sociologists have developed two alternative methods.

• These follow the same logic in seeking to identify causes, but they aim to overcome the unnaturalness and lack of validity of laboratory experiments.

these methods are :

1. field experiments

2. the comparative method.

Field experiments

A field experiment differs from a laboratory experiment in two ways - what are these ways?

Field experiments

A field experiment differs from a laboratory experiment in two ways

1. It takes place in the subject's natural surroundings rather than in an artificial laboratory environment

2. Those involved do not know they are the subjects of an experiment, thereby avoiding the Hawthorne effect.

Field experiments

• The researcher i_____ and m_____ one or more of the variables in the situation to see what effect it has on the unwitting subjects of the experiment.

• For example, R_____ and J_____ (1968) m______ t_____' expectations about p____ by giving them m______ i____ about the pupils' abilities in order to d_____ what effects this had on the c_____ a____.

Field experiments

• The researcher isolates and manipulates one or more of the variables in the situation to see what effect it has on the unwitting subjects of the experiment.

• For example, Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) manipulated teachers' expectations about pupils by giving them misleading information about the pupils' abilities in order to discover what effects this had on the children's achievement.

Field experiments→ Actor tests and correspondence tests

• a____ tests and c____ tests are also types of field experiment.

• For example, to test the hypothesis that there is racial discrimination in employment, B____ and G____ (1985) did what?

• Similarly, in a correspondence test, W_____ et al (2010) sent closely matched j____ a____ for almost 1000 vacancies, apparently from three applicants of different ethnicity.

• Such studies show the value of field experiments. They are more n____ and v___ for r____ l____, and they avoid the a____ of laboratory experiments.

Field experiments→ Actor tests and correspondence tests

• Actor tests and correspondence tests are also types of field experiment.

• For example, to test the hypothesis that there is racial discrimination in employment, Brown and Gay (1985) sent a White actor and a Black actor for interviews for the same posts, to see which one would be offered the job.

• The actors were of different ethnicity, but matched for age, gender, qualifications, etc.

• Similarly, in a correspondence test, Wood et al (2010) sent closely matched job applications for almost 1000 vacancies, apparently from three applicants of different ethnicity.

• Such studies show the value of field experiments. They are more natural and valid for real life, and they avoid the artificiality of laboratory experiments.

Field experiments→ ✘criticism

• However, there is a trade-off between naturalism and control: - what does this mean?

• If so, we cannot be certain that we have identified the true c____

• For example, while it may have been r___ that resulted in the White actor getting more job offers, we cannot be certain, because B____ and G____ could not c____ (or even k____ about) all the other variables in the situation.

Field experiments→ ✘criticism

• However, there is a trade-off between naturalism and control: the more natural and realistic we make the situation, the less control we have over the variables that might be operating.

• If so, we cannot be certain that we have identified the true cause

• For example, while it may have been racism that resulted in the White actor getting more job offers, we cannot be certain, because Brown and Gay could not control (or even know about) all the other variables in the situation.

Field experiments→ ✘criticism

• Critics also argue that field experiments are unethical, - why?

• However, it can be argued that in the case of Brown and Gay's and Noon's experiments, although the researchers did d____ their subjects (the employers), no h____ was done, and something of v_____ to s____ was learnt as a result.

Field experiments→ ✘criticism

• Critics also argue that field experiments are unethical, since they involve carrying out an experiment on subjects without their knowledge or consent.

• However, it can be argued that in the case of Brown and Gay's and Noon's experiments, although the researchers did deceive their subjects (the employers), no harm was done, and something of value to society was learnt as a result.

The comparative method

• Unlike both field experiments and laboratory experiments, the comparative method is carried out how?

• It is a 't____ experiment' - sometimes called a 'n____ experiment',

• It does not involve the researcher actually e_____ on r___ p____ at all

• Instead, it usually relies on re-analysing what?

The comparative method

• Unlike both field experiments and laboratory experiments, the comparative method is carried out only in the mind of the sociologist.

• It is a 'thought experiment' - sometimes called a 'natural experiment',

• It does not involve the researcher actually experimenting on real people at all Instead, it usually relies on re-analysing secondary data that has already been collected.

The comparative method

However, like the laboratory experiment, it is designed to discover c____-and-e____ relationships, It works as follows:

• Identify t____ groups that are a____ in all m_____ r_____ e____ for the one variable we are interested in.

• Then compare the two groups to see if this one d_____ between them has any e____

• The most famous example of the comparative method is what?

The comparative method

However, like the laboratory experiment, it is designed to discover cause-and-effect relationships, It works as follows:

• Identify two groups that are alike in all major respects except for the one variable we are interested in.

• Then compare the two groups to see if this one difference between them has any effect.

• The most famous example of the comparative method is Durkheim's (1897) classic study of suicide, which relied on analysing official statistics.

The comparative method→✓strengths

In seeking to discover cause-and-effect relationships, the comparative method has three advantages over laboratory experiments - what are these?

The comparative method→✓strengths

In seeking to discover cause-and-effect relationships, the comparative method has three advantages over laboratory experiments:

• It avoids artificiality.

• It can be used to study past events

• It avoids the ethical problems of harming or deceiving subjects.

The comparative method →✘limitations

However, it gives the researcher even l____ c_____ over variables than do field experiments, so we can be even less certain whether a t___ experiment really has discovered the c___ of something.

The comparative method →✘limitations

However, it gives the researcher even less control over variables than do field experiments, so we can be even less certain whether a thought experiment really has discovered the cause of something.