History of Computer Science

Efficiency Movement

early: Babbage (Analytical

Browser Wars

initially

Early computer history

- Nautical Almanac 1766: table for sea nav
- Tables du cadastre 1790 (De Prony): table factory
- Clearing house 1770: English banks
- Telegraph network 1870: centralized in UK

Babbage

Difference Engine 1822: pure calc for tables
Analytical Engine: store and calc

book 1832: Economy of Machinery and Manufactures
- pupular

Census and Hollerith

Hollerith founds TMC 1896: punched cards for cencus
- specialized machines for decadal cencus
1905: contract cancelled
- transformation to office machine company 1911

America's Love Affair

why mechanical office \= American phenomenon
- love of numbers & gaget happy
- late start

Four leading companies in 1920s

1. Remington Rand: Typewriter

Typewriters

- QWERTY: does not get stuck
- Remington funds Sholes (keyboard&basket arrangement) -\> Remington Typewriter Comp.
- 1880s: up to speed with copyists

Three features that Remington pioneered

- Perfection of lowcost mass manufacturing
- Organization of selling
- Training of clercs

Rands (James Jr. & Sr. Rand)

Kardex filing System
- fuse with Remington Typewriter Company: Remington Rand -\> biggest business machine company globally

NCR national cash register company

Patterson (founder)
- invention department
- salesmen training school (James Watson attends)
- smart motivation for salesmen (100 point club)

Founding IBM

- Watson attends NCR -\> learns about sales
- works for TMC 1911 -\> innovation center

Three traditions forming Computer

ADMINISTRATION: Organization Science
PROCESS CONTROL: AI (redoing process when feedback available)
SCIENCE: Computer Science

Women in computer history

- neglected in history & book
- lower- to middle-class: women do lower-labor jobs (computing

Dark age of computing

babbage's failiure cause he's too early
Comrie: late 1800s
- non-digital human computing
- analog computing through models

Analog Models late 1800s

- Ottery: model of planetary system
- Mechanical Tide Predictor (Lord Kelvin)
- Dam Model Holland
- Electrical grid network analyzer US

Weather Forecasting

at first: weather considered art \> science
Lewis Fry Richardson: pioneers numerical forecasting
1916: book 'Weather forecasting by numerical process'
- bottleneck were calculation capacities of the time
1922: imagines weather forecasting factory
- more dream than reality

Harvard Mark 1

- Aiken: inspired by babbage

Alan Turing

1936: Introduced concept of machines that could perform mathematical computations -\> turing machine
1950: Developed the Turing test

Technology of WW2

Manhattan Project: atomic bomb
Radar Systems
Code breaking: Enigma
- bottleleck: need for large computations
Rebuilding Europe:
- fatalism (negative view focussing on devastation)
- optimism (positivity

Moore School

- close to BRL: ballistic research lab

accepted through Goldstein 1943
- 1944: Neumann joins project -\> new storage system proposal -\> rethinking ENIAC -\> forming EDVAC
- 1945: von Neumann releases Paper on functionality of computing -\> spreads across world -\> splits research team into logicians & technologists
- 1945: ENIAC first computation
- 1946: Eckert & Mauchly quit to commercialize idea
- Summer school: teaching world about computer fundamentals

Vannevar Bush

- 1928-31: designs differential analyzer -\> first machine addressing wide range of problems

Maurice Wilkes

attends summer school at Moore School -\> gets inspired
1949: EDSAC as first European EDVAC-type computer
- proof of concept

ARRA & ARRA2

Aad van Wijnsgarden
1952: ARRA (Mathematical center of Amsterdam)
- similar to ENIAC
- computes only one single random number
1954: ARRA 2
- different functionality than ARRA
- sold to Electrologica

ARCO

1950 by Willem van der Poel
- programming works through plugging cables
- slow af

PETER

1950s by Phillips (Wim Nijenhuis)
- used for testing

European Dwarfs

Examples
- Phillips
- Shell
- Siemens AG
- Zuse
- Electrologica
Reasons
- Phillips: contract not to compete with IBM
- wrong decisions

early Film & Media culture

- ww2 technology becomes public: spawns science fiction interest
- public spendings of govs need to be defended -\> documentaries about technology (promotion)

examples
- dystopian views (1984

Types of firms that enter computer business in 1950s

- control equip comp.: already selling pricy equip
- office machine comp.: UNIVAC proven to have business value in the office
- enterpreneurial startups: knowhow is distributed but market is still open for entry

ECC (electronic control company)

1947: company by Eckert & Mauchly
- building EDVAC
- struggling to get funding
- EDVAC renamed to UNIVAC
- generally bad business model: selling cheaper than able to produce
- BINAC: small side project (unreliable binary arithmetic) -\> keeps company running
- company bought by James Rand
- 1951: UNIVAC finished -\> publicity stunt with prediction of election results

Postwar of IBM

CHALLENGES
- product obsolescence: specialized for military purposes
- new electronics need to be incorporated into old machines
- computer is not seen as highest priority at first -\> later found to be mistake
- korean war 1952: takes IBM resources to war time efforts instead of new inventions
SOLUTIONS
603 computer: new electronics in old devices
CPC: costeffective calculator
MDC: like UNIVAC but cheaper

IBM push

- while IBM pushes for defense calculator

computer race

1950s
companies had to decide
1. compete with IBM -\> massive investments necessary
2. exit business
3. enter niche market
only few companies survive

Rise of IBM

- 1957: Movie Deskset -\> positive PR for IBM
- 1959: 1401 computer -\> complete system providing logistics

System 360

IBM
- idea: making machines compatible
- SPREAD report: recommends redoing everything cause not redoing is even more dangerous
- super secretive
launch
- many orders but seems rushed & superficial
- leaves gap for competition to specialize

Strategy of dwarfs to compete with IBM

"price umbrella" -\> large win margins leave gaps for competition
- system 360 is flawed and doesn't cover everything
strategies -\> e.g. Control Data (big machines for defense and gov)
- better price to performance ratio & compatible to sys360 -\> e.g. RCA
- similar products and make them compatible with each oher -\> e.g. Honeywell

Computerization

late 1960s: industry standardized around IBM

candidates for new computerization areas:
- finantial sector
- medicine
- science

by 1970s: computer becomes commodity

Sound of Software

- at beginning: charging&discharging capasitors makes sound -\> used to monitor computer activity
- god save the queen "played" on EDSAC by Strachey
- capacitors replaced by transistors -\> don't make sounds -\> computer connected to speakers (ARRA1 & ARRA2)

SOUNDS USED FOR
- program navigation
- auditive monitoring
- program termination

1960s: synthesizer & electronical music

Metaphors in Computing

program -\> preparing program -\> programming

bug

Whirlwind

WW2: need for pilot simulator training
-\> need for real time computing
-\> Forrester proposes full scale digital computer
POSTWAR: project under pressure cause expensive
Forrester argues: project has immaterial worth for evolution of computing
1950: project closed

SAGE

1949: ADSEC air defense system engineering committee
-\> finds current system to be bad -\> need for new one
- based on Whirlwind
- new core system of MIT: fastest computer globally
1963: SAGE fully operational but already outdated

SABRE

\= airline reservation system
1940s problem: flights very popular
- system messy through batch processing
1950s: reservation crisis
1960-63: full implementation of SABRE
- full automation
- real time computing

ATMs

1949: diners club -\> monthly payments
1967: DACS in operation -\> first cash dispenser
1969 Chemical Bank: ATM with magn. stripe
1971: system of check balance and deposits

dream of cashless society late 60s beginning 70s

EUROPE
- Barkley's (bank in GB) tries real time
- model B8500 fails
- naming it "on time" instead of "real time"

VISA

Dee Hock: great visionary -\> money as digital number
1973 BASE 1: central minicomputer for central hub verification
1974 BASE 2: nationwide (US) automation of tranfers
1975 debitcards
1980 national network of ATMs

UPC universal product code

REASON -\> 1970s period of high inflation -\> supermarkets increase productivity -\> bottleneck checkouts
MEETING of McKinsey -\> brings together top managers of producers and superkmarkets -\> together deciding on UPC
1971: UPC accepted in entire industry
1973: scanning technology is developed through IBM
RESULTS
- cost reduction
- broadening product range
- striving supermarket industry -\> harder to enter
EUROPE 1973-74
international product code IPC

Reasons Software Crisis

- power of computers grow
- programs stored in binary and output also binary
- unstructured programming
- programming regarded as dark art
- programming on large projects is messy -\> instead of structure

Solution of Software Crisis

- structured programming -\> programming languages

Programming languages

FORTRAN 1957 IBM
- mathematical programming
- easy debugging
COBOL 60 (gov language in US):
- based on natural english language
- used for dataprocessing
ALGOL (eu):
- planned as universal language
- clear structure
- scientific applications
- disregarded in the US

David Wheeler

- realizes: computer can do language compiling on its own
- subroutines for storage efficieny
-\> increases reliablitity of EDSAC

Software Products

Computer users can't afford self producing code
-\> opportunity for software manufacturers to produce ready made software packages
1965 autoflow (producing flowcharts from existing progr.)
- Informatics \= Software startup for producing software -\> very successful
- Computer Associates \= Software startup buying other startups for software & firing employees

Agendas of the starting computer era

- manufactures want to make money -\> selling machines
- thinking machines -\> cybernetics
- academic discipline -\> establishing new university disciplines
ACADEMIC AGENDAS
- sharing information
- ordering

"Autocoding"

"Automated Programming" ??

Programmed instruction

- learning method
- complex material is broken down into a series of small steps -\> books in form of a learning algorithm
- learners master at their own pace
- intermediate tests
ADVANTAGES
- more trust -\> not biased
- more efficient

Time sharing

decribed by Christopher Strachey 1959
- multiple users using one mainframe
- having illusion of being only user
FIRST REALIZATION
1961 at MIT John McCarthy "CTSS" compatible time sharing system
1967 time sharing becomes popular in US
1970 computer utility dies (cause hardware prices & software crisis) but time sharing survives

Darthmouth

1962-1964 John Kemeny
- time sharing system at Dartmouth College
- computer & operating system
- language: BASIC

BASIC

programming language 1964
- programmed by students
- simple structure
- fast compiling
- limited function range
- good for introduction into programming
- gets widely accepted and computers need to be compatible (early 70s)
- expert view: only for beginners

ARPA

1957 Advanced Research Projects Agency
- leader: JCR Licklider
- founded as response to Sputnik crisis
- made timesharing popular
- "man computer symbiosis": computer does jobs that only waste human time

"Computer Utility"

concept originated from time sharing 1964 (MIT)
- many users

Grosch's Law

computing power \= (computer price)²
- few big computers cheaper than many small

Effects of dropping hardware prices around 1970

- computer utility dies
- time sharing survives -\> companies realize: well written

Unix

\= operating system
Thompson & Ritchie 1969-1974
- small is beautiful
- open source
- users contribute to code
- written in C -\> compatibilty
- made for small

Microelectronics

early 70s
- digital watches: first rising as luxurious product
- within a few years: prices drop

Minicomputers

1957: DEC digital equip. corp. -\> produces digital circuit board -\> integrates into small computers (comparable to todays Rasperry Pie) -\> prices drop
1965 PDP8 minicomputer for $18

Microchips

- Shockley moves west to "Silicon Valley" -\> founds Fairchild Semiconductors
- Robert Noyce leaves Fairchild -\> founds Intel
REASONS FOR FAST INNOVATION
1. technological: planar process improves transistor density -\> Moore's Law
2. second sourcing: contractors of gov & mil have to publish knowledge -\> forced circulation of knowledge

Moore's Law

1960s: computing power roughly doubles every two years

Silicon Valley (reasons for success

unique company traits)

European Silicon Valleys (examples

plan

Fairchild Semiconductor

- Shockley is unsuccessful CEO -\> people leave

Videogame Industry

PREINDUSTRY
- 1952: Turing Chess Algorithm
- 1970: spacewar at MIT

MAININDUSTRY
- arises from high density integrated electronic circuit boards
- 1971: ATARI (Nolan Bushnell) -\> first amusement industry company -\> first product: pong -\> low-volume arcades -\> high-volume domestic market
- 1980: PACMAN: introduces concept of AI

Threads leading to development of personal computer

- widespead availablity of computer languages
- expectations of individual copmuter experience
- booming semiconductor industry
- venture capitalism

Role of Hobbyists for PC dev

- enthusiasm created at collage or work
early 1970s: consumer electronics too expensive

Computer Liberalization

1970s: more of a widely held desire than movement
- make computer accessible for everyone
- antiestablishment culture -\> dream of techgiant-independent computers
EXAMPLE
- Steward Brand 1968: pushes NASA to publish satellite foto of earth -\> inspire individuals

Difference Liberalizationists & Hobbyists

Liberalizationists: terminals attaching to large terminals (timesharing) -\> knowledge for everyone
Hobbyists: personal computers -\> knowledge for everyone

Altair 8800

made by MITS 1975
- first computer based on microprocessor
- comes as building set
- cheap
- simple -\> only binary input and output
- open for add-ons
- targeting hobbyists
CONVERGING computers and minicomputer and micropocessor to personal computer

Microsoft

Bill Gates

Apple

Steve Jobs (thinker

Three paradigms of PC software

APPLE: aimed at hobbyists
- true computer with full potential
- enables accessories
COMMODORE PET: natural evolution of existing calculator line
- enclosed system
- upscaled calculator
TRS80: targets hobbyists and video game business
- now price
- uses television screen and audio casettes as storage

Software industry takes off

GAMES
- initially biggest market
EDUCATION
- now

IBM PC platform

1980 IBM enters PC business
- advantage of late entry: 2nd gen microprocessors
- first time of outsourcing production of software (Microsoft: MS-DOS) and hardware -\> IBM becomes only middleman
1981 IBM launches IBM PC bundled with MS-DOS
1982-83: IBM PC defines industry standard

DELL

1984 Michael Dell recognizes IBM's big win margin on machines
- fast delivery
- selling without the middle man
- upgrading old
- mass customization

Maturing the PC software

1980s
- GUI makes computer easier to use
- software & service make it worth to own computer
TWO PHASES OF INDUSTRY
- 1975-82 gold rush era: early market

Early PC Software market leaders + entry barriers

VISICALC - makes "what if" possible of mathematical industry calculations
LOTUS-1-2-3
WORDSTAR
DBASE

ENTRY BARRIERS
- dramatically improving PC performance
- knowhow of HCI
- access to distribution channels -\> marketing of software twice cost of development
- mostly single hit products

GUI + WIMP + where idea emerged from

WIMP \= synonym of GUI
windows
icon
mouse
pulldown menu

both Macintosh and Microsoft use it -\> helps making PC accessible for society

IDEA EMERGING FROM TWO LABS
- human factors research center: man computer symbiosis

invention of mouse
- graphic research group: fundamental invention of graphical interface

ideas did not directly explode cause
- not commercially feasible -\> no PC market at the time
- PCs not powerful enough for GUIs

1970s

ideas become commercially feasible

XEROX Parc

develops XEROX Alto 1973
- first real design of desktop computer: intuitive GUI

Macintosh

1979 Jef Rasking idea
- plug and play
- simple and friendly
- stand alone device
1981 Apple contracts Microsoft -\> copies ideas
1984 Macintosh launches but sales disappointing

CD-ROM

early 1980s Sony Phillips
- important mass storage
- 500mb capacity
- disk drive quite expensive
as price drops
- encyclopedias put on CD-ROMs -\> strong competition for printed ones (e.g. Microsoft buys "Encarta")
- games sold on CD-ROMs

Videotex

evolves from Teletext (oneway transmission of text data)
PRESTEL 1970s in GB
- two way communication system
- few subscribers cause limited information (time tables but no consumer products like banking etc.)

Minitel

late 1970s France launches communication system
- cheap cause funded by gov
- widely distributed cause using existing telefone lines
- networking effects
- sexting services
- popular casue available for consumer products and communication

minitel leads to late entry into internet in france

early Consumer Networks in US

ARPANET 1966 at MIT (Robert Taylor)
- not consumer but professional early information network to connect ARPA timesharing systems
- 1967 Taylor solves three problems: economic value of communication

Internet came from three desires

- efficient fault tolerant network for military
- unite the world's computer networks
- make world's knowledge readily available

Idea of global knowledge (encyclopedia -\> memex)

beginning 1800s: possible to have knowledge into all topics of human interest
late 1800s: impossible to have knowledge even only within Mathematics
IDEAS
- world encyclopedia: HG Wells 1930s -\> organize all knowledge systematically
- memex: Vannevar Bush 1945 -\> desk for information browsing

Email (history

advantages

WWW

1989 Tim Berners-Lee at CERN
- develops system to initially link all CERN computers
- proposal to make it world wide

Internet Landrush

1990s: US gov. mostly owner of internet -\> no permission of private profit
1995: private e-commerce exceeds gov. parts of internet

Early E-Commerce Companies

YAHOO! by David Filo

Dot-Com crash

- early 2000s: inflated prices in internet burst
- internet euphoria subsidizes
- e-commerce companies lose 80% of their value

Mobile Devices

LAPTOP
- 1982: first laptop -\> GRID COMPASS 1101
- expensive for publish: aerospace & military market
- early 90s: advancements in price/performance ratio cause new microprocessors -\> laptops become competitive
SMARTPHONE
2001: iPod & iTunes store -\> initialize success of handheld internet devices
2007: iPhone launches