Issues and debates

AQA Psychology

determinism

view that human behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces and free will is an illusion

Behaviour has a cause and is therefore predictable

strength of deterministic approach

hard determinism is consistent with features of science

It allows for manipulation of independent variables to see the effect on dependent variables to identify cause and effect

Allows objective approach to draw causal relationship to predict future behaviour

Limitation of deterministic approach

incompatible with conventional views on morality and legal system

Psychologists and theorists do not favour as it provides a potential excuse for undesirable behaviours in society such as offending

Offenders have used argument that were born with predisposition to be violent to mitigate their liability

Although this is rejected in court, accepting and adopting a deterministic position is undesirable as its implications on society could lead to legal issues

strength of free will approach

more approporiate to understand human behaviour

Appealing and so is viewed as intuitively correct

Human subjective belief is that we are in control of our behaviour

Supported by humanism

Positive influence on therapy and counselling

Client centred therapy supports value of recognising free will as a positive approach to explain behaviour

limitation of free will approach

free will is an illusion and all behaviour is determined even if unwilling to admit it

Research supports biological determinism

Found motor regions in brain become active before an individual consciously registered and awareness of their decision to move their hand

Supports idea that behaviour is determined

Free will is impossible to test as is a non physical vague concept that cannot be quantified or observed so cannot be falsified

Reductionism

scientific view that human behaviour is best explained by breaking it down into simpler component parts

Based on scientific assumptions of parsimony which is the idea that all behaviour is explained in the simplest terms

Biological reductionism

Biological psychologists reduce behaviour to physical level level

Single biological components such as genetics, neuron’s, neurotransmitters and hormones

example of biological reductionism

OCD explained by COMPT SERT gene

environmental reductionism

stimulus response reductionism

Behaviourists support concept of classical conditioning which assumes behaviour can be reduced to. Stimulus response with behaviour learnt by association

example of environmental reductionism

attachment of child associating mother with food providing happiness

Caregiver becomes conditioned stimulus creating conditioned response of pleasure

lowest level of reductionism

most reductionist

Biological explanation

Middle level of reductionism

psychological explanation

Cognitive and behavioural

highest level of reductionism

social and cultural explanation

Least reductionist

social cultural reductionist explanations of memory

Bartletts schema theory of memory has cultural explanations as research suggests socially learnt schemas affect how we recall

Psychological reductionist explanation of memory

theoretical memory’s such as multi store model with evidence from Miller and Peterson

Biological reductionist explanation of memory

memory is localised in areas of the brain such as the hippocampus

holism

argument that human behaviour should be viewed as a whole integrated experience and not separated into parts

Supported by gestalt psychology which explores how we perceive something in t he real world and we do so in a whole

Complex human behaviour can easily misunderstood

Example of holism

humanistic approach which argues human experience as a whole

Maslow proposes hierarchy of needs to consider all contributors to human behaviour

Use qualitative methods to support view

strength of reductionism

supports a scientific approach

Reducing behaviour to a form where it can be study allows for experimental research and can isolate operationalised variables which can be manipulated and controlled in a lab setting

Provides empirical evidence for psychological theory such as role of serotonin in OCD which allows for treatment

Can enable scientific research to support theory

limitation of reductionism

reducing to lower levels such as biology may ignore complexities of behaviour and lead to incomplete understanding of behaviour

For example isolating a single biological cause for a psychological illness when a variety of factors are involved

Whereas considering a holistic approach allows more explanations to explain causes of conditions

strength of holism

aims to provide a complete understanding of human behaviour

Humanistic advocate for holistic view that human behaviour is a subjective experience and can’t be understood through investigation

Human behaviour can only be explained through studying whole person like free will and human motivation

limitation of holism

untestable nature and theorists inability to objectively evidence behaviour when adopting a holistic approach

Reductionist support need to study whole person but stress that this can only be achieved thorough process of initially breaking down behaviour into smaller more measurable parts

Hard determinism

view that we have no control over out behaviour and our internal and external forces shape out behaviour

3 types of hard determinism

biological

Psychic

Environmental

biological determinism

role of biology in behaviour and that behaviour is innate and determined by genetic influences

example of biological determinism

genetic vulnerability for developing psychological disorders e.g. OCD

Nestadt et al reviewed twin studies and found high concordance rates in identical twins demonstrating role of genetics in developing OCD

psychic determinism

human behaviour is directed by innate drives and unconscious conflicts repressed from childhood

example of psychic determinism

psychodynamic approach claims that child development occurs in 5 stages each marked by different conflicts that the child must develop

If the child has unresolved conflicts this leads to a fixation and the child can carry associated behaviours through adulthood life

environmental determinism

behaviour is determined by experience

Skinner proposed free will is an illusion and all behaviour is a result of conditioning and behaviour can be shaped by socialisation ex

example of environmental determinism

behaviour approach

Two process model suggest phobias are acquired and maintained through conditioning

Watson and Rayner study on little Albert shows acquisition of fear response learnt thorough classical conditioning

Soft determinism

behaviour is constrained by the environment or biology to a certain extent

Some behaviour may involve an element of free will

Although behaviour is predictable, it does not mean its inevitable and we can choose how to behave

free will

human behaviour is self - determined and we can choose our thoughts and actions so have control over behaviour

Doesn’t deny internal and external forces contribute to behaviour but we have choice how to respond

nature

nativist position that characteristics of human species are a product of evolution and individual differences are a result of each persons unique genetic code

Heredity is process which physical and psychological traits are genetically passed down generations e

Example of nature debate

Bowlby proposed children come into the world biologically programmed to form attachments as it helps them to survive

Suggests attachment behaviour are selected and passed on as a result of genetic inheritance

supported by Harlow and Lorenz research

nurture

view that behaviour is a product of environmental influences

Humans mind is a blank slate and is gradually filled thorough experience

Example of nurture

attachment forms in terms of classical conditioning Where food is associated with mother and after reputations, the mothers becomes a conditioned stimulus eliciting the conditioned response of pleasure

Child therefore forms attachment based on pleasure of being fed

limitation of nature nurture debate

too simplistic to consider in isolation

Interactionist approach suggests human behaviour is explained by both biology and environment

In psychopathology, genetic predispositions and appropriate environmental trigger are required for a psychological disorder to develop

Biological vulnerability born with but only develop if there’s a stressor

nature and nurture explained by neural plasticity

Brain can re organise itself by forming neural connections through life

For example maguire investigated hippocampi volume of London taxi drivers and found brain larger than non taxi drivers

Concluded that rigorous learning of all London streets and experience of driving influenced size of hippocampi supporting interaction of two

ideographic

individual and emphasise unique personal experience and measured qualitatively

Doesn’t seek to formulate laws or generalise results to others

nomothetic

general law about behaviour from study of groups of people using quantitative statistical techniques i

ideographic research

KF who had motorbike accident

Short term forgetting of auditory information was greater than forgetting of visual information

Help for evidence for different memory stores of long term memory

nomothetic research

biological psychologists scientific approach for trends to generate causal laws for explaining OCD

Say compt and sert gene responsible for OCD to help generate drug treatment

strength of nomothetic approach

scientific approach using quantitative experimental methods which have ability to predict behaviour

This has useful application

Biological approach when explaining disorders led to drug therapies to treat chemical imbalance

Strength of ideographic

gives thorough understanding of Individual so can predict behaviour and in depth analysis increasing validity of findings over reliance of statistics

Talking therapies and CBT more suitable for some as more person centred approach

ideographic and nomothetic should be used in combination

ideographic seeds prompt for further research as explores behaviour with depth and detail which will lead to new research or challenge a theory

Mixed method gives best As challenges and complements each other

Could be argued to be a false separation

Gender bias

differential treatment and/or representation of males and females based on sterotypes

Alpha bias

theories of research that exaggerates the difference between males and females

Over emphasise differences which could result in devaluing one gender over another, leading to stereotyping and discrimination

beta bias

theories or research that minimises of ignores the differences between males females

androcentrism

theories which are entered or focused on males

universality

when theory is universal it can be applied to all people irrespective of culture or gender

gynocentrism

theories which are focused on females

Example of approach which is alpha bias

Freuds psychodynamic approach

Boys and girls experience different conflicts in their psychosexual development

Girls do not suffer same Oedipal conflict and so don’t identify with mothers as strong as fathers which impacts development arguing they are inferior and develop a weaker superego

However there is no evidence that females have a weaker superego ego

example of beta bias

Asch study in social influence only had male participants but it was assumed that females would respond the same way and therefore show same conformity rate

problem of taking a gender bias approach

gender research may find differences which aren’t apparent due to biased research methodologies as a result of researcher themself

Research found male experimenters more pleasant toward females and found males performed less well on these tasks

Further issue of gender bias

gender bias historically gone unnoticed and theory and research contributed to formation of rigid gender sterotypes

Assumption that females should be primary caregiver as are innately more nurturing which contributes to gender beliefs about mothers responsibilities

Socially sensitive and gives negative economic implications

Only recently been challenged with role of father

biological example of beta bias

biological research into fight or flight response often carried out with male animals so would be assumed wouldn’t be problem that fight or flight response would be same for both sexes

Culture

values, beliefs and patterns of behaviour shared by a group of individuals

culture bias

tendency to judge people in terms of ones own cultural assumptions

alpha bias for culture

theory assumes cultural groups are profoundly different

beta bias for culture

when real cultural differences are ignored or minimised which can be sen in universal research designs

ethnocentrisms

seeing the word from ones own cultural perspective and believing this is accurate

Typically west

cultural relativism

insists behaviour can only be properly understood if cultural context is taken into consideration

example of culture bias

Ainsworth strange situation is ethnocentric using 100 middle class American’s

Developed to assess attachment types and many researchers assume situation has some meaning for all infants in other cultures

Meta analysis of cross culture research found differences in culture like in Germany with high insecure avoidant and japan and China higher insecure resistant

Challenges validity

how does ethnocitsm relate to psychology

predominant view of white male and usually USA

Views and symptoms of mental disorders in DSM are based on white male experiences and others ignored - especially self actualisation and autonomy

Leads to misdiagnosis and incorrect treatment

recognising culture bias

deal with bias is to identify when

Research found 66% of research from a social psychology textbook were American, 32% from Europe and 2% from the rest

Suggests research is unrepresentative but also improved though sampling different cultures so by recognising can improve it

Implications of culture bias

through amplifying or validating damaging stereotypes

Tests which are formed with culture bias may advantage those who are from the culture which is is derived from

Americans more likely to perform well than others for an IQ test

Results would inform attitudes on intelligence of different cultures and say Americans have higher intelligent

Inaccurate and contribute to negative stereotypes

imposed etic

when you apply findings from one culture to all others

Emic approach

Findings are generalised and limited to the one culture which was studied

progress in culture bias

increased understanding helps to reduce ethnocentrism

Well traveled and international conferences exchange ideas across cultures which help to minimise effects of issue

Indigenous psychology developed to see experiences of individuals in different cultural contexts

Hold strength in regards to cultural relativism but still argue are biased views and are new forms of ethnocentrism

ethical guidelines

correct rule of conduct necessary when carrying out research outlined by the BPS or APA

social sensitivity

potential social consequence for participants, group of people represented by or related to researcher

ethical implications of milgram study

highly devised and unable to give informed consent

Research caused distress as felt unable to withdraw

Participants were debriefed afterwards and were follow up intrerviews but results affected how participants felt that they obeyed to authority with potential to cause harm

2 of participants had seizures

ethical implications of bowlbys theory

monotropy suggests children form one special attachment usually with mother and must be formed in a critical period

Also suggested this can form internal working model

Argues women’s role is at home so feel guilty for returning to work

Implications on father as discouraged to be care giver and feel guilt if single parents

things to reduce impact of socially sensitive research

1. Research questions which could be damaging to members

2. Methodology used as needs to consider treatment and right to confidentiality

3. Institutional context of whether data is going to be used and consider who is funding research

4. Interpretation of findings in relation to how seen in real world and ensure seen as correlational

Socially sensitive research of aggression

Raine et al used brain scans of violent criminals to examine levels of impulse control

Damaged to most areas by focused on frontal lobe

Findings may suggest children should have brain scans to identify predisposition for offending behaviour

Society and parents feel uneasy if have knowledge that have predisposition

Legal implications as theory to support crimes and reduce convictions

social sensitive research can lead to discrimination

negative implications on members of society

Maternal deprivation suggests attachment forms with primary - usually mother

Increase discrimination towards fathered as care giver and give concern for single parents ability to form attachment

Stigma around mothers returning to work

Social sensitive research can lead to reduced prejudge from challenging misconceptions

Highlighting potential implications of research to safeguard participates and family

However also important for psychologists to be able to do socially sensitive research for potential benefit

Socially sensitive research may be beneficial for society

provides conclusions that are useful to impacts policy’s and practices

Research into unreliability of EWT and role of anxiety on EWT reduced risk of miscarriages of justice

Used by governments and other organisations to form new policy

Role of father in attachment contributed to introduction of paternity leave