Ap Euro - Unit 2: Age of Reformation

simony

sale of church officies → example: in 1487 the pope sold 24 offices

pluralism

an official holding more than one office at a time → challenged unification of Europe

nepotism

favouring family members in the appointment of Church offices

• Leo X and Clement VII were sons of Medici rulers (both popes)

• Pope Paul III made two of his grandsons cardinals

absenteeism

an official not participating in benefices but recieving payment and privlieges

sale of indulgences

people paying money to the Church to absolve their sins or sins of their loved ones

clergical ignorance

many priests were virtually illiterate → not all priests were actually reading the texts → abused power

Lollards

followers of John Wyclif saying that the Bible was the sole authority and stressed personal communication with God, diminished importance of sacraments and translated the Bible into English

Erasmus, In Praise of Folly

critizied corruption in the church and hypocrisy of the clergy → layed the egg that Luther hatched

Christian humanism

in Northern Renaissance this idea critized church and wanted reform of the church

Martin Luther

was a monk who wanted reform of the church, very against indulgences, wrote the 95 Theses

Johann Tetzel

was authorized by Pope Leo X to sell indulgences

95 Thesis

Luther’s document critizing the selling of indulgences and questioning the pope’s authority to grant indulgences, spread through help of the printing press

“priesthood of all believers”

the church consisted of this, it was not a hierarchal structure

Diet of Worms

a tribunal of the Holy Roman Empire with power to outlaw and sentence execution through stake burning, Martin Luther went through this during his execution

Confessions of Augsburg

written by Luther’s friend, Philip Melanchthon, supposed to be a compromise statement to unite Lutheran and Catholic princes of the HR

Charles V

emperor of HRE, sought to stop Protestantism and preserve the hegemony of Catholicism, wanted to maintain religous unity in Europe → was too preoccupied with Ottoman Turks in Hungary

German Peasants War

series of violent revolutions across HRE → many peasants inspired by Lutheranism and wanted to fight for religous rights and economic equality

Twelve Artilces

German peasants demanded an end of serfdom and tithes, and other practices of feudalism that oppressed the peasantry

League of Schmalkalden

was formed by newly Protestant princes to defend themselves against Charles V’s drive to re-Catholicize Germany, alliance to push Lutheranism. France allied with the league b/c Charles V was a threat to France

Peace if Augsburg, 1555

temporarily ended the struggle in Germany over Lutheranism → princes in Germany could choose either Protestantism or Catholicism → Germany was not unified until 1871

Anabaptists

it was a voluntary association of believers with no connection or allegiance to any state → rejected secular agreements, wanted adult baptism, considered a radical group that took control of Münster

Tragedy at Münster

combined armies of Protestand and Catholic forces captured the city and executed Anabaptist leader → banded together b/c they saw it as a threat

Ulrich Zwingli, Zurich

A student of humanism who preached from Erasmus’ edition of the New Greek Testament → Adopted Lutheranism and established that amounted to a theocracy in Zurich.

• He saw Eucharist as only symbolic, disagreeing with Luther → split with Luther over this

John Calvin

A Frenchman who was influcenced by humanism, Erasmus, and Luther. Was exiled to Switzerland due to religious reforms.

Institues of the Christian Religion

Calvin’s foundational work for Calvanism

predestination

Since God is all-knowing, He already knows who is going to Heaven and who is destined for Hell

Geneva

Where Calvin established a theocracy → Became home to Protestant exiles from England, Scotland, and France who later returned to their countries with Calvanist ideas

Consistory

A judiciary made up of layelders had the power to impose harsh penalties for those who did not follow God’s law

Micheal Servestus

A Unitarian humanist from Spain, was burned at the stake in 1553 for his denial of the Trinity

Protestant work ethic

Calvanists later emphasized the importance of hard work and accompanying financial success as a sign that God was pleased

John Knox

established Presbyterianism

Presbyterianism

governed the church → became the dominant religion in Scotland

Huguenots

French Calvanists: brutally surpressed in France → especially strong among nobility

Dutch Reformed Church

developed in the United Procinces of the Netherlands → rise of Calvanism in the Netherlands set the stage for a revolt against the Inquisition of King Philip II of Spain

Puritans

Protestant groupd in England → established colonies in America

English Reformation

Lollards still existed in English regions, Tyndale helped set stage

William Tyndale

a humanist, translated the Bible into English in 1526 → Became the basis for the King James version

Henry VIII

Second of the Tudor Monarchs → wanted to divorce Catherine fo Aragon, broke from the Church and created Anglican Church

Catherine of Aragon

Henry VIII’s first wife, no male heirs → Charles V’s aunt, very Catholic

Anne Boleyn

Henry VIII’s second wife, also no male heirs, mother of Elizabeth I

Thomas Cranmer

convinced Henry tha he could divorce Catherine by breaking away from Rome

Church of England (Anglican Church)

Very similar to Catholicism but Henry VIII was the head

Act of Supremacy

Made the king officially head of church

Act of Succession

All the king’s subjects had to take an oath of loyalty to the king as head of the Anglican Church

Statue fo the Six Articles

The Anglican Church maintained most of the Catholic doctines despite its independence from Rome

Edward VI

10 years old when he bacame king → England moved towards Protestantism adopting Calvanism → his death lead to a religious struggle between Protestants and Catholics

Mary Tudor “Bloody Mary”

tried to unsuccesfully reimpose Catholicism → Daughter of Catherine of Aragon → got nickname “Bloody Mary”

Elizabeth I

Oversaw the development of Protestantism, was a politique, very important monarch

politique

thought politics were more important than religion in ruling → Elizabeth was one who allowed both Catholic and Protestant worshipping

Elizabethan Settlement

Elizabeth and Parliament required conformity to the Church of England but people were, in effect, allowed to worship Protestantism and Catholicism privately

Thirty-Nine Articles

defined the creed of the Anglican Church → followed Protestant doctrine but was vague enough to accommodate most of the English, except the Puritans

Katherine con Bora

Martin Luther’s wife, showed how marrige became more about live between the man and woman

Anglea Merici, Ursuline order of Nuns

founded the program in the 1530s to provide education and religious training → foundation for the future of young girls within the church

Teresa de Avila

A major Spanish leader of the reform movement for monasteries and convents → individuals could have a direct relationship with God through prayer and contemplation

Catholic (Counter) Reformation

Catholic church reformed and changed some of its ways → could have been for self or in counter to Protestantism

Pope Paul III

Most important pope in reforming the Church and challenging Protestantism → reformed existing doctrine

Council of Trent

estalished Catholic dogma for the next four centuries → solved problems addressed by Prostants, literary theology

Index of Prohibited Books

books that supported Protestantism or that were overly critical of the Chruch were banned from Catholic countries

Jesuits (Society of Jesus)

founded by Ignatius Loyola, orgnized in a military fashion to spread and preach Catholicism

Ignatius Loyola

founder of Jesuits → had a guidebook called Spiritual Exercises

Spanish and Italian Inquisitions (Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office)

Jesuits oversaw this. Spain persecuted Moors and Jews were were suspected of backsliding to their original faiths

Mannerism

art style that was a reaction agiants the Renaissance ideals of balance, symmetry, simplicity and realsitic use of colour → works were unnatural, acidic colours, while shapes were elongated or otherwise exaggerated

El Greco

a Greek artist who did most of his greatest work in Spain → greatest of the Mannerists

Baroque Art

part of the Catholic Reformation → it began in Catholic Reformation countries to teach in a concrete and emotional way and demonstrate the glory and power of the Catholic Church

Gianlorenzo Bernini

personified baroque architecture and sulpture → made the Colonnade, St. Peter’s Baldachin, and The Ecstasy of St. Teresa

Colonnade in piazza in front of St. Peter’s Basilica

Bernini’s greatest architectural achievement

St. Peter’s Baldachin

Bernini sculpted this as the canopy over the high alter of St. Peter’s Cathedral

Ecstasy of St. Teresa

Bernini’s altarpiece sculpture that is known for the emotions it evokes

Caravaggio, tenebrism

Roman painter → was the first important painter of the Baroque era → used light and dark

Peter Paul Rubens

Flemish painter → worked for Habsburg court, most of his work dealt with Christian ideas

Diego Velázquez

court painter → numerous portraits of Spanish court and their surroundings → Las Meninas

Artemesia Gentileschi

first female artist to gain recognition in the post-Renaissance era → first woman to paint historical and religious scenes

Philip II

A Habsburg ruler, son of Charles V, sought to reimpose Catholicism in Europe

Escorial

a new royal palace was built in Madrid in the shape of a grill to commemorate the matyrdom of St. Lawrence → symbolized the power of Phillip and his commitment ot the Catholic Crusdae

Battle of Lapanto

Spain defeated the Turkish navy off the coast of Greece

Dutch Revolt

The Netherlands revolted against Spain for religious purposes

William of Orange

led 17 provinces in the Netherlands and Flanders against the Spanish Inquisition

Spanish Inquisition

Philip sought to crush the rise of Calvanism in the Netherlands

United Provinces of the Netherlands

formed in 1581, recieved aid from England under Elizabeth I → made it hard for Philip to maintain his empire

Spanish Netherlands

modern day Belgium, the 10 southern provinces remained under Spain’s control

Spanish Armada

Spain’s attempt to invade England ended in disaster → bad weather and England’s better-built navy beat the Spanish → signaled the rise of England as a world naval power

French Civil Wars

9 wars between 1562-1598 occured → power struggle between 3 noble families for the crown ensued

Catherine de Medicis

Three French kings from 1559-1589 were dominated by their mother, who as a regent fought hard to maintain Catholic control in France

St. Bartholomew Day Massacre

A Huguenot and Catholic married, hoping to reconcile the two → caused more issues leading to Catholics massacring the Huguenots

War of the Three Henrys

civil wars between Valois, Guise, and Bourbons

Henry IV

became the first Bourbon king → was a politique

Edict of Nantes

Henry IV granted a degree of religious toleration to the Huguenots and ushered in an era of religious pluralism

Thirty Years’ War

from 1618-1648 → failure of Peace of Augsburg, HRE wanted to re-Catholicize

Bohemian Phase

1st phase of war → Protestantism was eliminated in this area

Defenestration of Prague

Triggered the Bohemian phase → 2 HRE officials thrown out a window

Albrecht von Wallenstein

a mercenary general who was paid by the emperor to fight for the HRE → invaded Northern Germany and won a number of important battles against Protestant armies

Edict of Restitution

the Emperor declared all church territories that had been secularized since 1552 to be automatically restored to Catholic Church

Gustavus Adolphus

King of Sweden → led an army that pushed Catholic forces back to Bohemia

French Phase

4th phase of the war → “international” phase

Cardinal Richelieu

French cardinal who allied with Protestant forces to defeat HRE → seen as a politique

Treaty of Westphalia

renewed Peace of Augsburg but added Calvanism as politically acceptable faith → ended the war

English Civil War

struggle between the king and Parliament regarding taxation and civil liberties

Stuart Dynasty

The ruling family of England with James I

James I

English king → believed in “divine right” of king

“divine right” of kings

kings were messangers of God, given that right of rule by Him