Philosophy Final 12/15

Hard Determinism

Everything is caused by prior events, so free will doesn’t exist. (actions are predetermined).

• Isaac Newton’s physics- “Matter in Motion”

Libertarianism

The belief that we do have free will, and that humans can initiate actions not determined by previous causes.

John Searle- The Contradiction

The tension between science telling us we have no free will but we live every day as we do, and we can’t stop.

Soft Determinism (Compatiblism)

A thesis that accepts determinism but also believes that actions can be free willed.

• Middle ground between Determinism and Free-will

• John Stuart Mill’s “System of Logic”

Walter T. Stace- Free Vs. Unfree Actions

• Free actions- Comes from internal states (desires, thoughts, choices)

• Unfree actions- Caused by external constraints

Patricia Churchland- “How Much Control?”

Instead of asking “Do we have free-will?”, ask “To what extent do we have control”.

Moral Responsibility

Responsibility depends on whether actions were intended, voluntary, or under your control.

“Existence Precedes Essence”

Satre’s Core Idea- Humans aren’t born with a fixed purpose or nature.

• We create ourselves through our choices, actions, and experiences.

Responsibility and feelings of Abandonment, Authority and Despair

• Abandonment: No God or external authority gives us meaning → We’re on our own

• Anguish: Your choices affect all humans

• Despair: Only having control over your own actions

Freedom and Choice

Humans are always free and responsible for choosing.

• Even not choosing is a choice.

Universality (Existentialism)

When you choose a value you imply it’s good for everyone.

• Your choice = Universal Statement

Authenticity

Living to your own values and freedom, not societal expectations

Bad Faith

Pretending your not free to avoid responsibiltiy

• Ex. “I had no choice”

Kant’s Categorical Imperative

Individual must make ethical choices believing the actions that follow could become universal law.

Kant’s Sense of Will

Choosing actions because they are morally right, not out of desire.

Universalizability

A test: “What if everyone did this?”- If it leads to contradiction or chaos, the action is immoral.

Utilitarianism

Right Action = Whatever produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.

• John Stuart Mill

Social Reforms by Utilitarians

• Women’s Rights

• Prison Reforms

• Animal Welfare

• Education Reform

Because they increase overall happiness

Bentham Vs. Mill on Happiness

• Bentham: All happiness is the same

• Mill: Different happiness for different things

Cultural Relativism

Different cultures have different moral codes

Ethical Relativism

Right and wrong depend entirely on a culture’s norms

Unacceptable Conclusions of Ethical Relativism

• Can’t criticize cultures

• Can’t say society gets better

• Heroes who try to change unfair rules would be wrong

Agreements Between Cultures

• Don’t Kill

• Don’t Steal

• Take care of kids

Rachel’s Objective Standard

Idea that humans can judge actions based on whether they help humans live good, healthy, lives together.

Aldo Leopold

• Went from hunter scientist → Ecological Ethicist

• Argued for Land Ethic: Humans are apart of nature

• Moral duty is to protect nature

Arne Naess- Deep Ecology

Advocated that nature has value even if it doesn’t help humans. We should live simply and respect all living things.

Retributive Justice

People who do bad things deserve punishment

Distributive Justice

Sharing goods, opportunities, and resources

Restorative Justice

Focus on healing (Repairing harm)

Rawls- Justice as Fairness

1. Equal Basic Liberties:
   Everyone must have the same fundamental rights and freedoms, such as freedom of speech, religion, and political participation.

2. The Difference Principle:
   Social and economic inequalities can exist, but only if they benefit the least advantaged members of society and if positions are open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity.

Economic Inequality

The difference between people who have a lot of wealth, income, and opportunities and people who have very little.

Aristotle- Eudaimonia

Living a good life by being a good, kind person.

Ricard- Compassion Meditation

Practicing compassion increases:

• Empathy

• Emotional well-being

• Brain activity linked to positive feelings

Broaden and Build

Positive emotions broaden your mindset

Heart Coherence

Calm breathing makes your body and mind work together better.

Aesthetic Judgement

Evaluating beauty or art

Dispute of Taste

People disagree about beauty

Aesthetic Experience

A special kind of perception involving focused attention, emotion, and appreciation of beauty

Ecoaesthetics

Finding beauty in nature