A and P II - Final

chemical senses

smell and taste

olfactory epithelium

contains cells that go through tiny holes in cribriform plate of ethmoid plate that connects to neuron in olfactory nerve I

3 types of olfactory smell

olfactory receptor cells - sense odor chemicals

supporting cells - nourishment and support

basal cells - stem cells and replace other cells

olfactory glands - produce mucus that dissolves chemicals so transduction can happen

pathway for olfaction

nasal cavity → olfactory receptor cells → axons in cribriform plate → synapse with neurons in olfactory bulb (end of nerve I) → olfactory tract → primary olfactory area in temporal lobe → odor identification in frontal lobe

olfactory transduction

binding odor molecule to olfactory receptor protein and making action potential

5 primary tastes

sour, sweet, bitter, salt, umami

taste buds are found where?

soft palate, pharynx, tongue (nerves 7 and 9), epiglottis

3 kinds of taste buds cells

supporting cells

gustatory receptor cells

basal stem cells

papillae

fingerlike projections on surface of tongue that contain the taste buds

4 kinds of papillae

vallate

fungiform

foliate

filiform - texture only (no taste)

gustation pathway

gustatory receptor cells → facial (anterior 2/3) or glossopharyngeal (posterior 1/3) or vagus nerve → gustatory nucleus in medulla oblongata → thalamus → primary gustatory area

vision visible light

400-700 nm on electromagnetic wave system

lacrimal apparatus (tear pathway)

lacrimal glands → lacrimal ducts → lacrimal puncta → lacrimal canaliculi → lacrimal sac → nasolacrimal ducts

Sclera

white, hard, outer layer of the eye that provides structure and protection

Choroid

Layer of blood vessels between sclera and retina that carries nutrients and oxygen

Retina

Light sensitive tissue at back of eye that converts light into electrical signals for brain to process

Optic disc

Point where optic nerve enters the retina and has no photoreceptors so creates blind spot

Macula lutea

Central part of retina that’s responsible for sharp detailed central vision

fovea centralis

Small depression in macula with the highest amount of cone cells = sharpest visual image

Iris

Colored part of the eye which controls the size of pupil and amount of light it allows in

Lens

Transparent structure that focuses (inverts and flips) the light on the retina (specifically macula lutea and fovea centralis) and separates the posterior and anterior humor

Pupil

Black circular opening in center of iris that controls amount of light entering the eye

Cornea

Transparent protective covering of the front part of the eye that helps focus the light as it enters the eye

Conjunctiva

Thin transparent membrane that covers and protects white part of the eye

Ciliary body or process

Produces aqueous humor and contains ciliary muscle which changes the shape of the lens to focus on near or far objects

vision pathway

clear cornea → anterior chamber → pupil → lens→ posterior chamber → retina → optic nerve → optic chiasm → optic tract → lateral geniculate nucleus in thalamus → optic radiation → primary visual area in occipital lobe

photoreceptors (2)

rods - dim black and white light

cones - bright colorful light

photopigments

capture the light which make receptor potential (beginning of action potential)

Rods only have rhodopsin

anterior chamber

between cornea and iris

filled with aqueous humor

posterior chamber

between iris and lens

filled with vitreous humor

emmetropic vision

normal 20/20 vision eye

astigmatism

irregular curve of cornea or lens

myopia

nearsightedness because eyeball is too long so vision doesn’t hit retina

hyperopia

farsightedness where eyeball is too short so light hits past retina

glutamate

inhibitory neurotransmitters that is released in darkness because there is less to see

optic chiasm

where the optic nerves cross

hearing transduction

take vibrations and turn into electrical action potential

external ear

auricle: captures sound

external auditory canal: sends sound to eardrum

tympanic membrane: eardrum

ceruminous glands

makes cerumen (wax) to protect canal and eardrum

middle ear

3 auditory ossicles (bones) that send vibrations into inner ear through oval window

auditory tube - connects to nasopharynx to relieve pressure in inner ear

inner ear

cochlea - hearing (snail shape) that contains lymph fluid that moves with vibrations

semicircular canals - balance (looping structures)

vestibular - balance

spiral organ

transduction

tectorial membrane

basilar membrane

stereocilia: tiny hairs that send action potential

sound pathway

auricle → external auditory canal → tympanic membrane → ossicles → lymph in cochlea scali vestibuli → vestibular membrane → lymph fluid in cochlear duct → basilar membrane → hair cells in spiral organ → vestibulocochlear (8) nerve → cochlea nucleolus in medulla oblongata → medial geniculate nucleus in thalamus

static equilibrium

staying still

body’s sense of position to gravity

dynamic equilibrium

body’s sense of position to sudden movement

vestibular apparatus

gives in equilibrium

saccule

utricle

semicircular canals

how does static equilibrium work

hair cells in saccule and utricle that senses movement like in hearing and send information to brain via vestibucochlear (8)

how does dynamic equilibrium work

liquid inside semicircular canals with ducts that contain group of hair cells called crista in ampulla sends message through vestibulocochlear (8)

equilibrium pathway

vestibulocochlear (8) nerve → vestibular nuclei in medulla oblongata → ventroposterior nucleolus in thalamus → vestibular area of cortex

hormone system

any cell or tissue that produces hormones (chemical messengers)

direct vs paracrine communication

direct: exchanges between openings between neighboring cells

paracrine: chemical signals from cell to cell withing same tissue

autocrine vs endocrine communication

autocrine: messages affect same cell that produced them

endocrine: cells that release hormones into bloodstream so can reach distant organs

target cells

have receptors that are needed to bind and read hormones in other cells

function of hormones

affect type amount or activity of enzymes and proteins

alter metabolic activity of many tissues and organs

affect long term processes like growth

classes of hormone (3)

amino acid derivatives

peptide hormones

lipid derivatives

steroid hormones

lipid soluble

aldosterone

cortisol

calcitriol

testosterone

estrogens and progestrones

thyroid hormones

lipid-soluble

T3

T4

nitric oxide

amine hormones

water-soluble

epi, norepi (catecholamines)

melatonin

serotonin

histamine

peptides and proteins

water-soluble

glycoproteins (TSH, LH, FSH), small proteins (insulin, GH, prolactin), ADH, oxytocin

eicosanoids

water-soluble

prostaglandins

leukotrienes

water or lipid soluble receptor proteins

amino acids and peptide hormones are water-soluble so receptor protein is on outside of cell

lipid derivative is lipid soluble so can get through phospholipid bilayer so it can go straight into nucleus

lipoprotein

lipid-soluble hormones bind with proteins to go through circulatory system as blood is mostly water

down vs up regulation

amount of hormones released will change based on concentration

down-regulation in large amount

up-regulation in small amounts

antagonistic vs synergistic hormones

antagonistic cancel out each other’s effects (ie glucagon and insulin)

synergistic work together for stronger effect

most hormones are antagonistic

posterior 1/3 PG

neurologic tissue that does NOT produce just releases:

oxytocin and ADH

oxytocin

released by posterior 1/3 of PG

uterine contractions

ejection of breastmilk

hypothalamo-hypophyseal system/tract

blood vessels that connect hypothalamus to posterior PG

anterior PG

glandular tissue that produces and releases

FSH, Prolactin, LH, hGh, TSH, MSH

FSH

produced and released by anterior PG

female: makes oocytes and estrogen

male: stimulates production of sperm cells

Prolactin

produced and released by anterior PG

continues production of breastmilk

LH (luteinizing hormone)

produced and released by anterior PG

female: promotes ovulation

male: stimulates production of testosterone

hGh (human growth hormone)

produced and released by anterior PG

promotes growth

most abundant hormone

TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone)

produced and released by anterior PG

Follicular → thyroglobulin which is precursor to iodine to make t3 and t4 to control basal metabolic rate

Parafollicular → calcitonin which decreases Ca levels

MSH

Produced and released by anterior PG

Not sure function currently

Thymus

Makes thymopoletin → maturation of T-lymphocytes

Leptin

Found in adipose tissue

Supersedes appetite and might increase FSH and LH activity

ANP

Lowers BP in heart by stimulating urination

hCG (human chorionic gonatetropin)

Stimulates ovaries to produce estrogen and progesterone to maintain pregnancy

Pineal gland

Part of epithalamus

regulates circadian rhythm

Testes

Produce sperm cells under the control of testosterone

Ovaries secrete:

Hormones: inhibin, relaxin, estrogen, progesterone

Substance: secondary oocytes

Inhibin

Secreted by ovaries

Stops FSH/LH production

Relaxin

Secreted by ovaries

Relaxes pubic symphysis

Estrogen

Secreted by ovaries

Secondary sex characteristics, menstruation, pregnancy, menopause

Progesterone

Secreted by ovaries

Thickens uterine lining for implantation of zygote

Adrenal gland cortex

Uses adrenocortitropic hormone

Zona glomerulosa: mineralcorticoids and aldosterone

Zona fasculatis: glucocorticoids ie cortisol

Zona reticularis: androgens ie DHEA

Adrenal medulla

Chromaffin cells that produce epi and norepi aka catechomines

Pancreas

Endo: pancreatic inselts

Alpha: glucagon

Beta: insulin

(Theta and delta cells)

Glucose blood level of homeostasis

Insulin: decreases glucose, hyperglycaemia, targets skeletal muscles

Glucagon: increases glucose, hypoglycaemia, targets liver tissue

Parathyroid

Sits on edge of thyroids wings

Principle cells secretes PTH parathyroid hormone → j creases calcium

zygote

Ova merged with sperm

Mitosis vs meiosis

Mitosis is body cell reproduction and makes identical daughter cells

Mitosis is sexual reproduction where 2 different sets of 46 chromosomes that combine and split into different daughter cells

Oogenesis

Primordial germ cells (2n) → oogania (2n) → primary oocyte formation (2n and D) → secondary oocyte formation (n and H) → ovulation

When does meiosis 1 start?

After primary oocyte formation

Diploid and Haploid begins in oogenesis?

Diploid: primary oocyte formation

Haploid: secondary oocyte formation

How many oocytes survive oogensis

1 as ovum and three disintegrate as polar bodies

Spermatogenesis

Spermatogonia → primary spermatocytes (2n and D) → secondary spermatocytes (n and H) → spermatids (n) → spermatoza (n)

Diploids and haploids in spermatogenesis

Diploid: primary spermatocytes

Haploid: secondary spermatocytes

How many spermatogonia survive spermatogenesis

all 4