Unit 2: Cognition

Flashcards covering key vocabulary and concepts related to cognition and memory from the lecture.

Bottom-Up Processing

Perception that begins with raw sensory data and builds up to a complete perception without prior knowledge.

Top-Down Processing

Perception that is influenced by prior knowledge, experiences, and expectations.

Schema

A mental framework that organizes and interprets information based on past experiences.

Perceptual Set

A predisposition to perceive something in a particular way due to prior experiences, expectations, or context.

Context Effects

The influence of environmental cues on perception, leading to different interpretations of stimuli.

Perceptual Constancy

The ability to perceive objects as unchanging despite changes in lighting, distance, or viewing angle.

Closure (Gestalt Principle)

The tendency to mentally fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object.

Figure-Ground

The ability to distinguish between an object (figure) and its background (ground).

Selective Attention

The ability to focus on specific stimuli while ignoring others.

Cocktail Party Effect

The ability to focus on one conversation while filtering out background noise, yet still noticing personally relevant stimuli.

Inattentional Blindness

Failing to notice something visible in a scene because attention is focused elsewhere.

Change Blindness

Failing to notice large changes in a visual scene due to a lack of attention.

Binocular Depth Cues

Depth cues that require both eyes to perceive depth and distance.

Retinal Disparity

A binocular cue where the brain compares the slightly different images from each eye to perceive depth.

Convergence

A binocular cue where the brain interprets the degree to which the eyes turn inward to focus on a close object.

Prototype

The best or most typical example of a concept.

Assimilation

The process of incorporating new information into existing schemas without changing them.

Accommodation

The process of modifying schemas to fit new information.

Mental Set

The tendency to approach problems using a past strategy that was previously successful.

Priming

The unconscious activation of certain associations that influence perception, memory, and behavior.

Framing

The way information is presented, which can influence decision-making.

Divergent Thinking

A type of creative thinking that explores multiple possible solutions.

Convergent Thinking

A problem-solving approach that focuses on finding a single best solution.

Functional Fixedness

The inability to see an object as having a function other than its usual one, hindering problem-solving.

Algorithm

A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct solution to a problem.

Heuristic

A mental shortcut used to solve problems efficiently, which may lead to errors.

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging a situation based on how similar it is to a prototype rather than actual probability.

Availability Heuristic

Judging the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind.

Gambler's Fallacy

The mistaken belief that past random events affect future random outcomes.

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

The tendency to continue investing in a losing endeavor due to previously invested resources.

Explicit Memory

Memory that can be consciously recalled and explained to others.

Episodic Memory

A type of explicit memory for personal experiences and events.

Semantic Memory

A type of explicit memory for general knowledge and facts.

Implicit Memory

Memory that is not consciously recalled and is more difficult to describe.

Procedural Memory

A type of implicit memory for learned skills and tasks.

Prospective Memory

Memory for future tasks or intentions.

Working Memory Model

A model that describes how the brain processes and manipulates information before transferring it to long-term memory.

Multi-Store Model of Memory

A model that proposes memory consists of three stages: sensory, short-term, and long-term memory.

Levels of Processing Model

A model proposing that memory retention depends on the depth of processing.

Mnemonic Devices

Memory aids or strategies that enhance encoding.

Chunking

Grouping information into meaningful units to improve memory retention.

Spacing Effect

The tendency for distributed practice to enhance retention more effectively than massed practice.

Serial Position Effect

The tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than those in the middle.

Maintenance Rehearsal

The process of repeatedly verbalizing or thinking about information to extend its presence in short-term memory.

Autobiographical Memory

Memories of personal experiences, often stronger when tied to emotional or self-relevant events.

Amnesia

A condition involving memory loss.

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of past memories while retaining the ability to form new ones.

Anterograde Amnesia

The inability to form new memories while retaining past ones.

Alzheimer's Disease

A neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive memory loss and cognitive decline.

Recall

Retrieving information from memory without external cues.

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information when given cues.

Context-Dependent Memory

The tendency to recall information better when in the same environment where it was learned.

Mood-Congruent Memory

The tendency to recall memories that match one's current emotional state.

State-Dependent Memory

The tendency to recall information better when in the same physiological or mental state as when it was learned.

Retrieval Practice

Actively recalling information to strengthen memory.

Testing Effect

The phenomenon where self-testing enhances long-term retention more effectively than passive studying.

Metacognition

The awareness and understanding of one's own learning and memory processes.

Forgetting Curve

A graphical representation showing the decline of memory retention over time.

Encoding Failure

The failure to process information into memory, preventing retention.

Repression

The unconscious blocking of painful or traumatic memories from awareness.

Proactive Interference

When older memories interfere with the retrieval of newer memories.

Retroactive Interference

When new information interferes with the retrieval of older memories.

Misinformation Effect

The impact of misleading information on one's memory of an event.

Source Amnesia

The inability to remember where, when, or how previously learned information was acquired.

Constructive Memory

The process of remembering that involves the reconstruction of memory based on experiences, beliefs, and cues.

Memory Consolidation

The process by which temporary memories become stable and long-term memories.

Imagination Inflation

The phenomenon where imagining an event increases the confidence that it actually occurred.

General Intelligence

A theoretical construct that suggests a single factor (g) underlies various cognitive abilities.

Multiple Intelligences Theory

Howard Gardner's theory that proposes eight distinct types of intelligence, including linguistic and logical-mathematical.

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Robert Sternberg's theory proposing three types of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical.

Standardization

The process of establishing norms and uniform procedures for testing.

Construct Validity

The extent to which a test measures what it claims to be measuring.

Predictive Validity

The extent to which a test accurately forecasts future performance or outcomes.

Stereotype Threat

The fear of confirming negative stereotypes about one's social group, which can hinder performance.

Stereotype Lift

The phenomenon where individuals perform better due to positive stereotypes about their social group.

Flynn Effect

The observed rise in IQ scores over time across generations.

Achievement Tests

Tests that measure knowledge and skills in specific subjects.

Aptitude Tests

Tests designed to assess an individual's potential to learn or perform in different areas.

Fixed Mindset

The belief that abilities and intelligence are static and unchangeable.

Growth Mindset

The belief that abilities and intelligence can be developed through effort and