2a. Increasingly complex global migration (UNFINISHED)

Consequences of economic globalisation

- Led to the emergence of new source areas and host destinations making migration more complex

- Global economies are more interdependent

- Bilateral corridors and migration partnerships have been strengthened

Economic globalisation: inter-regional example - skilled workers

- Highly skilled workers from China, India, and Brazil migrate to the USA

- Especially graduates in fields including science, maths, healthcare and technology.

- This has been facilitated by advancements in communications technology allowing people to gain awareness of what opportunities are available.

- Attracted by high salaries and high quality of life available

- In many cases migrants are overqualified for their jobs as employers might not recognise foreign qualifications

Example, in 2020 Indians made up 74.9% of H-1B visas to work to the USA (followed by China 12.1%) and Indian nationals account for about 46% of all work visas granted globally.

Economic globalisation: inter-regional example - Oil-producing states

There are large numbers of workers from India, Bangladesh, Egypt, the Philippines and Indonesia who migrate to oil-producing Gulf States (e.g. UAE + Saudia Arabia)

- There is an increased labour demand, relatively high wages, accommodation, transportation and it is easy to send remittances

- Jobs in construction + oil production

Economic globalisation: intra-regional example - ASEAN

There are high rates of migration between ASEAN member states

- There is freedom of movement in those trading blocs

- There are fast growing economies in Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand (host destinations)

- Migrants often are from Myanmar, Lao PDR and Cambodia (source destination)

In 2020 ASEAN had an international migrant stock of 23.6 million.

Economic globalisation: intra-regional example - EU

Return migration makes up a large part of migrant flows in the EU

- 93% Romania's total migration

- 88% Lithuania

- 72% Lativia

Often young workers who achieved their economic goals after a few years and returned to more prestigious positions in their home countries.

Economic migration: internal migration example - Brazil

- Internal migration is common in EDCs due to FDI in cities.

- This creates agglomerations of economic activity and created more job opportunities encouraging rural to urban migration.

Brazil is among the top FDI receivers in the world and in 2022 received $86 billion into the finance sector and oil, gas and mineral extraction.

- There is common movement from the poorer northeast region to the wealthier Southeast and South.

Why is there more complexity in movement - political changes

- Announced after referendum of June 2016

- 2016 - 190,000 EU citizens moved to UK

- 2019 - 92,000

Discouraged EU migrants for remaining or migrating to the UK.

Young workers

- Primarily economic migrants looking for employment opportunities, higher wages and the possibility of remittances, freedom to move.

Young workers - UAE example

Around 88% of the population of the UAE is made up of migrants.

- The number of foreign-born residents was 2.45 million in 2000 and to about 8.5 million in 2022.

Female migration - pattern

- In the 21st century the number + proportion of female migrants has increased

- 1960: 46.1% female

- 2020: 48.1% female

Female migration - why

Previously: commonly due to family reunification or migrating with husband or as refugees

Recently: increasingly for economic or educational opportunities.

Female migration - spatial differences

In 2019 51% of all migrants in developed countries were female compared to 43% in developing countries.

- There are regional differences.

A larger proportion of women migrate from Europe and North America compared to Asia and Africa.

Why: legal + social freedoms (e.g. Equality Acts), access to education, medical improvements in contraception, cultural differences.

Female migration - development and women

- There can be a slightly larger flow of remittances from female migration compared to male migration as women tend to remit a larger proportion of their incomed compared to male migrants

- Women also are likely to show more stability and frequency in sending home remittances and they are also more likely to remit when unexpected shocks occur.

Female migration - challenges

- The average monthly earnings of female migrants are over 20% lower than those of male migrants in 37/60 countries with data available.

Female migration - reasons for migration

- UN Environment estimates that 80% of individuals that are displaced due to climate change are women.

- Gender is a push factor for migrant wome.

Female migration - industries

- tertiary industries: domestic job market such as cleaning a housekeeping

- primary sector: Women are more likely to be in primary sector jobs

In France and Greece 24% and 34% of female migrant workers were employed as cleaners or helpers in 2016.

- elementary education: Women are more likely to be in elementary education

In Chile 34% with upper, secondary or elementary education were in elementary occupations in 2018 compared with 22% among their male counterparts.

Female migration - barriers to migration

There can be place restrictions on the international movement of women + countries with these restrictions see fewer migrants per capita than other countries with similar incomes.

- Women can require permission from a husband or father to leave a country.

In Iran married women require their husbands' permissions to gain a passport and travel internationally.

South Sudan example

Folllowing the conflict in South Sudan (2013-20) there as a large refugee crisis.

- Over 4 million people were displaced

- Nearly 2.3 million went to neighboring countries

South Sudan - female migrants

- Women were disproportionately affected facing challenges including violence, exploitation and malnutrition.

- 83% of those fleeing South Sudan were women and children.

South Sudan - host countries

- Many fled to neighbouring countries including Sudan, Uganda, Ethiopia, Kenya and the DRC.

- In Kenya many South Sudanese live in refugee camps such as the Kalobeyei settlement which hosts nearly 150,000 refugees.

South to South - why

- Increased foreign investment

- Job opportunities increasingly accessible

- Global economies are interconnected

- Administrative barriers + costs (e.g. USA H1-B visa process can cost up to $8000)

- Increased awareness of opportunities.

South to South - statistics

- There is a greater amount of South to South migration (82.3 mil) than South to North migration (81.9 mil) - 2013

- 2/3 of migrant remittances are sent between countries in the global South.

South-South example - Egypt and Jordan

- Common migration corridor.

- Over 600,000 Egyptians work in Jordan (underestimate as many are there with illegal work permits)

- Common industries: agriculture, construction + services.

- Push factor: poor economic and social conditions in Egypt

- Pull: higher wages (GDP per capita difference is over $1,500), Geographical proximity, visa-free travel

- Egypt is the highest remittance-receiving country in the Middle East and North Africa. (32.8bn in 2024)