AP Comparative Government and Politics Review

legislative branch

legislative branch

part of government responsible for writing laws and major policies

executive branch

part of government responsible for implementing laws through the government’s bureaucracy

judicial branch

part of government responsible for implementing laws through the government’s bureaucracy

Head of State

executive leader who presents a nation in ceremonial functions; in some governments can also have formal powers to shape foreign policy

Head of Government

executive leader sometimes known as a chief executive who formulates, implements and enforces powers to shape foreign policy

parliamentary system

when a national legislature has combined lawmaking and executive functions with the empower to select and remove a prime minister who acts as head of government

presidential system

when separate election processes are used in the selection of the president and the national legislature; president serves as head of state and head of government who oversees the bureaucratic implementation of executive regulations and laws written by the legislature

semi-presidential system

when separate election processes are used in the selection of the president and the national legislature; president serves as head of state and selects the head of government, with the legislature’s approval, to shape policies and implement the legislature’s laws

executive term limits

institutional constraints on the length of time a head of state or head of government can serve in office

fixed term election system

system in which elections for public officials take place on a regularly announced established date

executive bureaucracy

the system of governmental agencies that implement executive regulations and laws written by the legislature

Question Time

allows majority members of a legislature to indicate representation of the interest of their constituencies (districts) and allows the opposition party to verbally challenge the majority party governance and policy making

executive cabinet

top governmental officials in charge of formulating, implementing, and enforcing policy through different methods and bureaucratic agencies

commander in chief

top governmental officials in charge of decisions pertaining to the military

prime minister

when the leader of the national legislature is also the head of government who is in charge of formulating, implementing, and enforcing policy through different methods and bureaucratic agencies

civil service

permanent members of bureaucratic agencies who implement laws and governmental regulations

unicameral

legislative structure that consists of one chamber of representatives

bicameral

legislative structure that consists of two chambers of representatives

parliamentary hybrid

term that describes Russia’s semi-presidential system in which a directly elected president appoints the prime minister of the national legislature’s lower chamber (Duma)

empirical data

fact-based information from observation or experimentation

normative statement

a value or opinion statement that cannot be proven or disproven

qualitative data

information that is difficult to measure including sources such as speeches, foundational documents, political cartoons, maps, and political commentaries

correlation

when there is an association between two or more variables

causation

difficult to determine with certainty in Comparative Politics, as often there are numerous variables that potentially influence political policies and/or regime stability, with no way to isolate and demonstrate which is producing the change

Human Development Index (HDI)

comes from the United Nations Development Programme as “a summary measure of average achievement in key dimensions of human development” including statistics about life expectancy, amount of schooling, and income

gross domestic product (GDP)

the market value of goods and services produced over a certain time in a country; can depict the overall size of a national economy

GDP per capita

reflects the size of the national economy in comparison with the population size

GDP growth rate

shows the rate of national economic expansion

Gini index

Shows income inequality within a country; 100% indicates perfect inequality whereas 0% indicates perfect equality

Freedom House

Scores reported by a non-governmental organization (Freedom House) that ranks countries based on scores for political rights and civil liberties

Governmental transparency

The ability of citizens to access information about a government’s policy making and policy implementation to help hold officials accountable

governmental corruption

when public officials abuse power for personal benefit

Fragile States Index

reported by the Fund for Peace which is a non-governmental organization that assesses and ranks countries based on their potential to weaken due to conflicts and domestic turmoil

political systems

the laws, ideas, and procedures that address who should have authority to rule and what the government’s influence on its people and economy should be

states

political organizations that combine a permanent population with governing institutions to exercise control over a defined territory with international recognition

regime

the fundamental rules that control access to and the exercise of political power; typically endure from government to government

government

the set of institutions or individuals legally empowered to make binding decisions for a state

sovereignty

the independent legal authority over a population in particular territory

nation

a group of people with commonalities including race, language, religion, ethnicity, political identity, and aspirations

rule of law

the principle that a state should be governed by known laws and not arbitrary decisions made by individual government officials

free and fair elections

allow competition so that an opposition candidate and party can defeat the ruling candidate and partyi

independence of government branches

prevents any one branch from controlling all government power

independent election comissions

an attempt to reduce voter fraud and manipulation and enhance electoral competition

suffrage

synonym for voting rights; universal suffrage means that every citizen above a certain age is legally eligible to vote

civil rights

the protection of groups of citizens from discrimination by the government or other individuals

civil liberties

an individual’s protection against abuse of powers by the government

corporatist system

government created and supported interest groups (typically for labor groups, business owners, and agricultural workers) that become the government’s preferred linkage institutions for citizen participation

pluralist system

citizens can affiliate with more independent interest groups to attempt to shape public policies

democratic electoral systems

accommodate ethnic diversity and increase multiparty competition with rule adjustments, including gender or cultural quotas, proportional representation, and changes in vote thresholds and district boundaries

gender quotas

governmental or party rules intended to increase female representation in legislatures

democracy/authoritarianism

include the extent of state adherence to rule of law; the degree of governmental influence on or control of the media; degree and practice of free and fair elections; degree of transparency of governmental decision making; the degree of political participation by citizens; and the degree of independence of governmental branchesil

illiberal democracies and hybrid regimes

hold elections with little competition toward the ruling party and that tend to have diminished civil liberties

one party states

when rival parties are prohibited from controlling governmental power

theocracies

require the state be controlled by leaders of a particular religion

totalitarian governments

authoritarian governments that severely limit citizens’ rights to movement and free choice of employment

military regimes

when military leaders hold top positions of governing authority

democratization

a transition from an authoritarian regime to a democratic regime; the transition process can start or temporarily change direction, but typically moves toward more competition, fairness, and transparency in elections; increased citizen participation in policy-making processes; universal suffrage for adult citizens; greater governmental transparency; protected civil rights and liberties; equal treatment of citizens; and establishment of rule of law

democratic consolidation

the process by which a democratic regime matures in terms of election rules, separation of powers, and protection of civil liberties, making it unlikely to revert to authoritarianism without an external shock

power

ability of the state to influence the conduct of individuals and organizations within the state

authority

state’s legitimate right to enforce power

sources of power and authority

include constitutions, religions, military forces, political parties, legislature, and popular support

federal states

divide power among different levels of government to confer a degree of local autonomy in supplying social and educational services, while also reserving powers for the national government

unitary states

concentrate power at the national level with more uniform policies and potentially more efficient policy making

devolution

the delegation of power to regional governments that can enhance or weaken legitimacy; can create both opportunities for as well as obstacles to resolving social, political, and economic issues

legitimacy

refers to whether a government’s constituents believe their government has the right to use power in the way they do; confers authority on and can increase the power of a regime and government

sources of legitimacy

include popular elections, constitutional provisions, nationalism, tradition, governmental effectiveness, economic growth, ideology, religious heritage and organizations, and the dominant political party’s endorsement

political stability

the ability of a government to consistently provide services that meet the basic needs of most of the population to foster the public’s confidence in the institutions of the state

coercion

the use of government force to guide citizen behavior and actions; can be as small as a citation and small fine to as large as brute force and violence

China executive

President and Premier of the state; Secretary General of the CCP

Iran executive

Supreme Leader and President

Mexico executive

president

Nigeria executive

president

Russia executive

president and prime minister

UK executive

monarch and prime minister

executive term limits advantages

check executive power by inhibiting the emergence of dictators and personality rule; help to focus the officeholder on governing rather than wining elections; and provide opportunities for new leaders with new ideas, policies, or goals

executive term limits disadvantages

force good executives to leave office; allow insufficient time for an officeholder to achieve goals; impede policy continuity; weaken accountability; create. lame-duck period for the officeholder; prevent the officeholder from building experience as chief executive; and can cause poorly designed policy

China term limits

legislature: 5-year terms, no limits

Iran term limits

Supreme Leader: none; president: two 4-year terms

Mexico term limits

president: one 6-year term

Nigeria term limits

president: two 4-year terms

Russia term limits

president: two 6-year terms; prime minister: 6-year terms

UK term limits

monarch: none; prime minister: 5-year term, no term limits

parliamentary removal of executive

through vote of no confidence done by lower house

presidential removal of executive

impeachment done by Congress

Iran removal of executive

president can be removed by Supreme Leader; Supreme Leader can be removed by Assembly of Experts

Russia removal of executive

prime minister can be removed by president

China legislative system

party-controlled system is unicameral and consists of an elected National People’s Congress that the constitution recognizes as the government’s most powerful institution that elects the president, approves the premier, and legitimizes policies of the executive

Iran legislative system

theocracy is unicameral; the Majles is elected and holds the power to approve legislation, oversee the budget, and confirm presidential nominees to the Cabinet; body acts under the supervision of the Guardian Council to ensure compatibility with Islam and Sharia law

Mexico legislative system

congressional-presidential system is bicameral; consists of an elected lower house—the Chamber of Deputies—that proves legislation, levies taxes, and verifies outcomes of elections; the elected upper house, the Senate, holds the unique power to confirm presidential appointments to the Supreme Court, approve treaties, and approve federal intervention in state maters

Nigeria legislative system

congressional-presidential system is bicameral, consisting of an elected upper and lower chamber (Senate and House of Representatives); both chambers hold the power to approve legislation, and the Senate posses unique impeachment and confirmation powers

Russia legislative system

parliamentary-hybrid system is bicameral, and consists of an elected state Duma, which passes legislation and confirms the prime minister; an appointed Federation Council approves budget legislation, treaties, judicial nominees, and troop deployment

UK legislative system

parliamentary system is bicameral, consisting of an elected House of Commons—which approves legislation—and the prime minister appointed by the monarch, whereas an appointed House of Lords reviews and amends bills from the Commons, effectively delaying implementation as a power check

China constraints on legislature

• the Politburo Standing Committee is the actual center of the state

• the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress (NPC) which assumes legislative duties most of the year when the NPC is not in session, sets NPC legislative agenda, supervises NPC member elections, and interprets the Constitution and laws

Iran constraints on legislature

• Expediency Council, which is elected by the Supreme Leader as an advisory committee to resolve disputes between the Majles and the Guardian Council

• Guardian Council, which vets candidates and oversees the Majles to make sure laws comply with Islamic law

independent legislature advantages

reinforce legitimacy through: representation of citizens, checking the executive branch, compromising with factions, promoting stability, open debate, and transparency

rubber stamp legislatures

rubber stamp executive action with no debate or checks

common law countries

UK and Nigeria

code law countries

Russia, Mexico, and China

Sharia law

Iran and Northern Nigeria

China judicial system

rule by law means the judicial system is subservient to the decisions of the CCP which controls most judicial appointments