happy ap psychology

Psychology

Scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Behavior = observable actions; mental processes are inferred (think “iceberg: behavior on top”)

Behavior

Observable actions of an organism. Anything you can see or measure directly

Mental processes

Internal thoughts, feelings, memories, perceptions. You infer them from behavior, not directly observe

Psychodynamic

Behavior driven by unconscious conflicts and early childhood experiences. Iceberg model: most of the mind is hidden

Behavioral

Behavior shaped by reinforcement, punishment, and modeling. Rewards and consequences control routes

Humanistic

Emphasizes free will, growth, and reaching one’s potential. Maslow’s ladder → self-actualization

Cognitive

Focuses on thoughts, beliefs, and information processing. Mind = computer

Sociocultural

Behavior influenced by social norms, roles, and culture. You act how your group expects

Biological (Neuroscience)

Behavior explained by brain, genes, hormones, neurotransmitters. Bio → behavior

Evolutionary

Behaviors that increased survival or reproduction persist. “Did this help ancestors survive?”

Biopsychosocial

Explains behavior using biological, psychological, and social factors. Three lenses at once

Clinical psychology

Assesses and treats mental disorders using therapy and testing. Talk therapy, assessments

Clinical psychiatry

Medical doctors who treat mental disorders and prescribe medication. MDs can prescribe meds

Confirmation bias

Seeking information that supports existing beliefs. We like “comfortable” info

Hindsight bias

Belief that you knew the outcome all along. “I totally predicted that”

Overconfidence bias

Overestimating accuracy of one’s knowledge. Being too sure shuts down learning

Hypothesis

Testable prediction about variable relationships. “If X happens, then Y will occur”

Operational definition

Exact way a variable is measured or manipulated. Allows replication

Replication

Repeating a study to confirm results. Science checks itself

Population

Entire group you want to generalize to. “Possible participants”

Sample

Subset of population actually studied. Must represent population

Random sample

Every population member has equal chance of selection. Reduces sampling bias

Convenience sample

Participants chosen because they are easy to access. Fast but biased

Sampling bias

Sample does not represent population. Results won’t generalize

Case study

In-depth study of one individual or small group. Rich detail, low generalizability

Naturalistic observation

Observing behavior in real environments without interference. Real behavior, no control

Meta-analysis

Statistical combination of results from many studies. Big picture, more power

Correlation

Relationship where two variables vary together. Correlation ≠ causation

Correlation coefficient

Number from −1 to +1 showing strength and direction. Pearson’s r

Scatterplot

Graph showing paired scores of two variables. Visual correlation

Directionality problem

Unclear whether X causes Y or Y causes X. Chicken-or-egg issue

Third variable problem

Hidden variable causes both X and Y. Z is the real cause

Survey

Self-report method measuring opinions or behaviors. Fast, wording matters

Wording effect

Question phrasing changes responses. Leading questions bias data

Self-report bias

Inaccurate answers due to memory or honesty limits. People forget or guess

Social desirability bias

Answering to look socially acceptable. We want to look good

Experiment

Manipulates IV and uses random assignment to test causation. Only method that shows cause

Independent variable (IV)

Variable manipulated by researcher. Cause

Dependent variable (DV)

Variable measured. Effect

Confounding variable

Uncontrolled factor affecting DV. Alternative explanation

Experimental group

Receives treatment/IV. Gets the change

Control group

Does not receive IV. Baseline comparison

Random assignment

Equal chance of being in any group. Balances differences

Placebo effect

Improvement due to expectations, not treatment. Belief creates change

Single-blind procedure

Participants unaware of group assignment. Reduces expectancy

Double-blind procedure

Participants and researchers unaware of group. Reduces bias

Experimenter bias

Researcher expectations influence results. Tone, cues matter

Qualitative data

Descriptive, word-based data. Interviews, observations

Quantitative data

Numerical data. Scores, reaction times

Likert scale

Rating scale measuring agreement. 1–5 or 1–7 scale

Descriptive statistics

Organize and summarize data. Mean, graphs

Frequency distribution

Table showing how often scores occur. Reveals patterns

Histogram

Bar graph of score frequencies. Shape of data

Mean

Arithmetic average. Sensitive to outliers

Median

Middle score. Best for skewed data

Mode

Most frequent score. Can be more than one

Range

Highest minus lowest score. Spread

Standard deviation

Average distance from mean. Data spread

Normal distribution

Bell-shaped curve. 68–95–99.7 rule

Skewed distribution

Scores pile on one side. Tail pulls mean

Bimodal distribution

Two peaks in data. Two groups present

Percentile rank

Percentage of scores at or below yours. Relative standing

Regression toward the mean

Extreme scores move closer to average on retest. Extremes don’t last

Inferential statistics

Use sample data to infer population patterns. Draw conclusions

Statistical significance

Likelihood results occurred by chance (p < .05). Unlikely coincidence

Effect size

Strength or importance of a relationship. How big the effect really is

APA

Professional organization setting ethics and standards. Psychology rule-makers

IRB

Committee reviewing research ethics. Protects participants

Informed consent

Participants informed of risks and rights. Adults choose knowingly

Informed assent

Minors agree with guardian consent. Age-appropriate understanding

Protection from harm

Minimizing physical and psychological risk. Safety first

Confidentiality

Identifying info kept private. Data protected

Anonymity

No identifying info collected at all. Strongest privacy

Deception

Misleading participants when necessary. Must be debriefed

Confederate

Actor posing as participant. Milgram helpers

Debriefing

Explaining study purpose afterward. Ethical cleanup

Causal

One variable directly produces change in another. Only experiments establish causation

Contemporary

Current or modern perspectives or research. “Happening now”

Empirical

Based on observation or measurement. Data, not opinion

Random

Each participant has equal chance. Prevents selection bias

Probability

Likelihood of an outcome between 0 and 1. p-values use probability

Discrepant

Conflicting or inconsistent with expectations. Data doesn’t match theory

Defensible

Can be supported with evidence. Science must be defendable

Pervasive

Spread widely or throughout. Bias can be pervasive

SES (Socioeconomic Status)

Combined measure of income, education, occupation. Affects health, testing, access

Refute

Show a claim is incorrect using evidence. Science disproves ideas

Theory

Organized explanation of observed patterns. Explains, does not predict one event

Operational definition (clarified)

Precise, replicable description of how variables are measured or manipulated. “Score on Rosenberg Scale” not “self-esteem”

Validity

Degree to which a study measures what it claims to measure. Accuracy of measurement

Reliability

Consistency of measurement across time or observers. Repeatable results

Correlation strength

Determined by distance from zero, not slope. ±.90 strong, ±.10 weak

Positive correlation

Variables move in same direction. As X ↑, Y ↑

Negative correlation

Variables move in opposite directions. As X ↑, Y ↓

Zero correlation

No relationship between variables. Scatter shows no pattern

Control condition

Condition without treatment used for comparison. Establishes baseline

Random sampling vs random assignment

Sampling selects participants; assignment places them in groups. AP LOVES this distinction

Placebo

Inert treatment with no active ingredient. Controls expectation effects

Minimal risk

Harm not greater than everyday life. Required for approval

Right to withdraw

Participants can leave at any time. No penalty

Animal research ethics

Must justify benefit, minimize suffering. APA guidelines