Memory Processes and Retrieval Cues in Psychology

Encoding

Process of getting information into memory

Happens when we pay attention and process information

Retrieval

Process of bringing stored information back into awareness

Why both encoding and retrieval are necessary

- If information is not encoded, it never enters memory

- If information cannot be retrieved, it feels like it was forgotten

• What is the difference between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal in

terms of (a) the procedures associated with each type of rehearsal and (b) their

effectiveness for creating long-term memories?

Maintenance Rehearsal

Procedure

Repeating information over and over - Example: repeating a phone number

Effectiveness

Mostly keeps information in short-term memory - Not very effective for long-term memory

Elaborative Rehearsal

Procedure

Thinking about meaning

- Connecting new information to knowledge you already have Example: Creating associations or examples

Effectiveness

Much better for forming long-term memories

Levels of Processing Theory

They proposed that 2 different types of processing may be used:

1. shallow processing: rehearse info based on superficial characteristics.

Focus on physical features - Example: letter shapes or sounds - Produces weaker memories

2. deep processing: rehearse info based on meaningful characteristics.

Focus on meaning -Produces stronger memories

Connection to rehearsal (Levels of Processing Theory)

Maintenance rehearsal = shallow processing

Elaborative rehearsal = deep processing

• What is the self-reference effect, as studied by Rogers et al. (1977)?

Memory is better when information is related to yourself Example procedure:

Participants asked if adjectives describe themselves Result

Words related to the self were remembered best

• What is survival processing, as studied by Nairne et al. (2008)?

Participants rated words based on how useful they would be for survival in a scenario (ex: stranded in the wilderness). Result

Words processed in survival contexts were remembered best Idea

Memory may be adapted for survival-relevant information

• What is a retrieval cue? What does it mean to say that memory is cue dependent?

it is A stimulus that helps trigger memory retrieval

Example: Smell reminding you of a past event

Cue-Dependent Memory;

- Memory works better when helpful cues are available

• Describe the Tulving and Pearlstone (1966) cued recall experiment and Mantyla's

(1986) experiment in which he presented 600 words to his participants.

Participants studied words from categories - Later tested with:

- Free recall

- Cued recall (category names provided)

Results

- Cued recall was much better What it shows

Retrieval cues greatly improve memory

Mantyla (1986)

Procedure

Participants studied 600 words

Asked to generate their own cues for each word

Later given their cues

Result

Participants remembered about 90% of words

What it shows

Self-generated cues are very powerful for retrieval

• Be able to describe the method and results of the Fisher and Craik (1977)

experiment that looked at the interaction between encoding and retrieval.

Three different types of cues

- Rhyme cues

- Categorie cue

- Sentence cue

Ex. Does this word rhyme with like? Then that word would be cued with each combination listed above

Results:

Rhyme encoding condition: best performance was rhyming retrieval

Category condition: category had best performance

sentence condition: sentence retireval condition has best performance

Retrieval cues were best with what you did during encoding step

encoding specificity

Memory is best when conditions during retrieval match conditions during encoding

Diving Experiment ( Godden and Baddeley's (1975)

Divers learned words:

Underwater - On land Results

Best recall when learning and testing environments matched Example:

underwater → underwater recall

Experiment by Hugh Grant.

Students studied in:

quiet - noisy Result

Best memory when study and test environments matched

State-Dependent Retrieval;

Memory depends on internal state during learning and recall. (emotional)

• What is state-dependent retrieval? Describe Goodwin et al.'s (1969) experiment to

support your answer.

Participants learned words while:

sober - intoxicated Result

Best recall when state matched Example:

drunk → drunk recall

Mood-Dependent Retrieval

Memory is better when mood during retrieval matches mood during learning

• What is mood-dependent retrieval? Describe Eich and Metcalfe's (1989) experiment

to support your answer.

Participants learned words in:

happy mood - sad mood Result

Best recall when mood matched

cue overload

a memory principle stating that a retrieval cue loses effectiveness as the number of items associated with it increases.

• What is cue overload? Use the Wickens et al. (1976) experiment to explain why

unique cues are important for retrieval.

Participants first learn three sets of fruits

On the fourth trial, given either:

Fruits (control group) , Vegetables , Meats , Flowers , Occupations

The one that is different is the most remembered like occupations because it stands out

Cues become less effective when there is too much information associated with them

Ex. Psych room being the same as my econ