PSY-215 Exam 2

Chapters 5 and 6.

1. Trimesters, weeks, months

2. Conceptual Age

3. Gestational Age

What are the three ways that pregnancy is measured?

Conceptual Age (38 weeks)

A method of measuring pregnancy where you have to know the moment of fertilization.

Gestational Age (39 ½ weeks)

A method of measuring pregnancy where you estimate based on the day of the start of the last menstrual period.

• Most common

Zygote

Fertilized egg

Germinal Period

Period of development characterized by:

• Fertilization to implantation

• Lasts around 10-14 days

• Formation of blastocyst

• Important hormone production

Blastocyst

Clump of cells with two different layers

1. Inner cell mass

• Develops into embryo and part of amnion

2. Trophoblast

• Develop into support structures (placenta and chorion)

Secretes Human chorionic gonadotropin Hormone (hCG) which thickens uterine lining and suppresses immune system.

Embryonic Period

Period of development characterized by:

• 2-8 weeks

• Begins at end of implantation

• Inner cell mass splits into 3 layers

  • Endoderm

  • Mesoderm

  • Ectoderm

• Organogenesis

• Neural tube forms

• Primitive heartbeat

Fetal Period

Period of development characterized by:

• First trimester (8-12 weeks)

• Second trimester (13-25 weeks)

• Third trimester (26-38 weeks)

First Trimester (8-12 weeks)

Which trimester of fetal period is this?

• Bone tissue begins to develop

• External genitalia begins to develop

• Some basic sensory systems begin to develop

Second Trimester (13-25 weeks)

Which trimester of fetal period is this?

• Body growth

• Quickening

  • first fetal movements mom can feel

• Senses begin to work

  • fetus responds to sound

• Some/low level of viability

  • need significant medical intervention 

Third Trimester (26-38 weeks)

Which trimester of fetal period is this?

• Brain growth and connections forming

• Fat deposits under babies skin begins to develop

  • Maintain body temperature

• Higher level of viability

1. Proliferation

2. Migration

3. Differentiation

What are the three phases of brain development?

Embryonic Period w/ Neural tube

When does brain growth begin?

Proliferation

Which stage of brain development is this?

• Production of first brain cells (neurons)

  • Many brain cells produced in a short period of time

• Cerebral cortex forms from the inside out

  • Younger neurons on outside

• Central core forms from the outside in

  • Younger neurons on inside

• Occurs Prenatally ONLY

Migration

Which stage of brain development is this?

• Glial cells guide neurons to where they need to go via a network

• Chemical gradients also attract or repel neurons to move them

• Occurs Prenatally ONLY

Differentiation

Which stage of brain development is this?

• Myelination of axons

  • Speed up rate of message movement through axon

• Synaptogenesis and Pruning

  • Forming connections with other neurons via synapses

  • Pruning to remove synapses not needed

    • Makes neurons more efficient

• Occurs from 6 months — >  Late adolescence

  • Occurs both Prenatally and Postnatally!

1. Experience Expectant Connections

2. Experience Dependent Connections

What are the two components of brain plasticity?

Experience Expectant Connections

Connections developed because our brain expects certain experiences to happen.

• The brain keeps connections used to process expected information and prunes connections that weren’t

• Critical Periods!

• Ex. vision

Experience Dependent Connections

Connections developed based on specific individual experiences.

• New synapses formed due to stimulation

• Ex. playing an instrument

1. Placenta

2. Umbilical Cord

3. Amniotic Fluid

What are the three main components of the prenatal environment?

Placenta

The exchange site between mom and baby.

Umbilical Cord

Connects the placenta to the fetus

• 2 arteries and a vein

Amniotic Fluid

Insulates and protects the fetus, within amniotic sac, and contains cells from fetus.

1. Susceptibility

2. Critical Period

3. Access

4. Dose-Response Relationship

5. Teratogenic Response

6. Interference with Certain Mechanisms

7. Developmental Delay/Sleeper Effects

What are the 7 principles of teratology?

Susceptability

Which principle of teratology is this?

• The species observed is important

  • something that affects one species might no affect another species

• Individuals

  • something that affects one individual might not affect another individual

Critical Period

Which principle of teratology is this?

• When?

• Time of exposure can determine/impact effect of teratogen

Access

Which principle of teratology is this?

• How?

• How exposure happens can help determine effects of teratogen

  • Ex. Vaping/smoking directly vs. secondhand smoke exposure

Dose-Response Relationship

Which principle of teratology is this?

• How much?

• Actual amount of teratogen ingested

  • Ex. A sip of alcohol at church vs. a drink every night

Teratogenic Response

Which principle of teratology is this?

• Which ones?

• What specific teratogens are in question

Interference with Certain Mechanisms

Which principle of teratology is this?

• Teratogens make their way into the fetal environment and disrupt cellular activity and normal functioning

Developmental Delay/Sleeper Effects

Which principle of teratology is this?

• Disruption of development but we don’t see the effects until later on

  • Can’t see learning disabilities in babies right away

1. Diet

2. Drugs

3. Diseases

4. Environmental Toxins

5. Maternal/Paternal Health

What are the 5 main categories of teratogens?

Diet

What category of teratogen is this?

• Increase in >300 calories

• Low amounts of folic acid, calcium, and iron

• Caffeine consumption >200 mg per day

Drugs

What category of teratogen is this?

• Opioids

  • Prescription or nonprescription

  • Increase risk of heart, neural tube, and digestive system defects

  • Baby will be born addicted to drug and go through withdrawal

    • NOWS-Neonatal Opioid Withdrawal Syndrome

    • NAS-Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome

    • Difficulties feeding due to severe nausea, sensitivity issues, problems controlling body temp, etc.

• Marijuana/CBD/Vaping/Herbal Supplements

  • Highly unregulated industry

  • Easy access and mixture of unmonitored chemicals

Diseases

What category of teratogen is this?

• Pregnancy induced hypertension

• Pre-Eclampsia

  • Stable significant high blood pressure

  • Edema- excess/significant swelling due to fluid retention and begin toxin buildup

• Toxemia

  • Critical level of fluid and toxin buildup

  • Severe risks for mom- seizures and comas

  • Severe risks for fetus- toxins through placenta

  • Preterm births- baby must be delivered ASAP

Diseases

What category of teratogen is this?

• RH Incompatability

  • +Fetus/-Mom

  • Mom could be introduced to fetus blood vice versa

  • If mom exposed to RH factor, her body will produce an immune response

    • First response (1st pregnancy) will be small and unharmful

    • Second response (2nd pregnancy) will be large and pose risk to mom and baby

      • Baby can develop jaundice, heart defects, anemia, risk of miscarriage/stillbirth

  • Use medication to prevent immune response

Diseases

What category of teratogen is this?

• Gestational Diabetes

  • Increased weight gain, inconsistent blood sugars, issues regulating insulin

  • Increased risk for women >30, obesity, previously large baby

  • Uncontrolled blood sugar in mom= uncontrolled blood sugar in baby

    • Baby pancreas stores excess sugar as fat-large baby

    • Baby pancrease produces excess insulin to counteract high blood sugars, so when baby is born, blood sugar drops very low (hypoglycemia)

Environmental Toxins

What category of teratogen is this?

• Lead

  • Significant effects on brain development

  • Risks of high blood pressure, miscarriages, and preterm delivery

• Toxoplasmosis

  • Parasite found in digestive system of cats (outdoor) and raw meats

  • Pregnant women should not change litter box

  • Mom’s immune system can fight it, but babies can’t

    • Significant effects on brain development

Maternal/Paternal Health

What category of teratogen is this?

• Stress

  • Lack of sleep, high blood pressure, high heart rate, high cortisol, eating bad food, etc.

  • Changes behaviors

• Age

  • More likely for genetic problems to occur

Right before labor

When does this occur?

• Baby changes position to be head down

• Hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal glands of fetus fully mature

  • Start producing hormones —> increase of estrogen and decrease of progesterone by placenta —> release of prostaglandins in uterus and oxytocin by pituitary gland of mom

Stage 1- Early and Active Labor/Transition (Dilation)

Which stage of Labor is this?

• Regular contractions of uterus cause dilation of uterus to begin

• Baby slowly starts moving down birth canal to eventually rupture amniotic sac (water breaking)

• Average 8-12 hours

• Contractions increase, become more frequent and longer

• Transition= contractions ~90 seconds in length and less than 2 minutes apart

Stage 2- Pushing/Expulsion

Which stage of Labor is this?

• Complete dilation at 10 cm

• Crowning of the baby’s head

• Delivery of baby

Stage 3- Placental Stage

Which stage of Labor is this?

• Contractions continue for delivering the placenta

  • Entire placenta must be delivered or risk of infection

Physical Effects of Vaginal Birth

Changes in skull shape due to pressure from birth canal

• Cone Head

Stress and Sexual Hormones from vaginal birth

The stressful process of birth leads to a rise in stress hormones

• This is a good thing as it helps the baby adjust to the outside world such as taking their first breath

Sex hormones increase as well

Oxygen supply changes during vaginal birth

During birth, the umbilical cord can get pinched leading to brief interruptions in oxygen supply to baby

• Baby’s body is prepared for this

• If oxygen disruption lasts too long leads to anoxia

Breech Position

What position is this?

• Baby’s butt is facing the birth canal

• Widest part of baby delivered last

Hammock Position

What fetal position is this?

• Baby’s back is facing birth canal

• Baby would have to fold in half to move down canal

  • Impossible

Cesarean Section

Risks to mom

• Major surgery which means under anesthesia, risk of infections, blood loss etc.

Risks to infant

• Exposure to medication such as anesthesia, painkillers, etc.

• Decreased stress hormones especially if planned

  • Takes longer to adjust to outside world

Eye Antibiotics

Prevent baby from developing infection from bacteria present in mom’s vagina.

Vitamin K Shot

Given to baby after birth to prevent issues with blood clotting.

Blood work

Test done to newborns to test for PKU, blood sugars, Hepatitis, etc.

APGAR Test

1. Activity (muscle tone)

2. Pulse (heart rate)

3. Grimace (reflex responsivity)

• Reflexes and facial expressions

4. Appearance (color)

• Should be pink

• Blue means lack of oxygen

5. Respiration (breathing)

Each Category is scored 0-2

Total score 0-10

Twice

• 1 minute after birth

• 5 minutes after birth

When/how often is the APGAR test given?

Neonatal Behavioral Assessment (NBAS)

1. Self-Regulation

• Maintain breathing, body temperature, etc.

2. Motor Systems

• Movement, muscle tone, reflexes, etc.

3. State Maintenance

• Baby should be able to stay asleep/maintain state during changes in stimuli

4. Social Interaction

• How does the baby do when being handled, changed, etc.

Tonic Reflex

What reflex is this?

• If you turn the infants head to the right, their right arm should extend outward and the left arm should bend inward.

• Disappears around 7 months

Rooting Reflex

• If you touch the mouth/cheek of an infant they will turn their head toward it

• Disappears around 4 months

Sucking Reflex

What reflex is this?

• Infant will suck on anything put in mouth

• Disappears around 2 months

Startle Reflex

What reflex is this?

• If baby is startled by a sound, they will extend their limbs out and then bring them back tucked into body

• Disappears around 3 months

Moro Reflex

• If baby feels a loss of support, they will extend their limbs out and then bring them back tucked into body

• Disappears around 3 months

Babinski Reflex

• If you run a finger along the bottom of baby’s foot, their toes should fan outward

• Disappears around 4 months

Crawling Reflex

• If you place an infant on their stomach, they should move their limbs like they are crawling

• Disappears around 2 months

Stepping Reflex

• If you hold an infant and touch the bottom of the infant’s foot to a hard surface, they will pick their foot up

• Disappears around 3 months

Placing Reflex

• If you hold an infant and touch the top of the infant’s foot to a hard surface, they will pick their foot up

• Disappears around 3 months

Palmar/Grasping Reflex

What reflex is this?

• If something touches baby’s hand, they will grasp it

• Disappears around 6 months

Prematurity (Weeks)

• Pre-term = 35 weeks conceptual / 37 weeks gestational

• Very Pre-term = 30 weeks conceptual / 32 weeks gestational

• Extremely Pre-term = 26 weeks conceptual / 28 weeks gestational

Prematurity (Weight)

• Low birth weight = 5 lbs

• Very low birth weight = 3 lbs

• Extremely low birth weight = 2 lbs

Respiratory Distress Syndrome (RDS)

Issue of prematurity due to low surfactant exposure since baby’s lungs aren’t fully developed

• Surfactant strengthens the lungs

Bronchopulmonary Dyplasia

Issues of prematurity due to the lungs not being fully developed and the harsh air damages the baby’s lungs. Lungs repaired with scar tissue which make lungs more rigid and unable to fully expand.

Retinopathy

Issues of prematurity where too much oxygen exposure can damage the retinas leading to vision loss etc. 

Temperature and Physiological Regulation

Issues of prematurity where the baby can’t regulate their body temperature and physiology. 

Feeding Issues

Issues of prematurity where the infant has a had time coordinating sucking and breathing.