Midterm 2 Material Sociology

Political Sociology

The empirical study of how social and economic factors influence power and politics.

Theory of Divine Right of Kings

The belief that kings are chosen by God, and their authority is respected because it is seen as coming from God.

Social Contract Theory

The idea that people obey the government because they have consented to it, as proposed by Thomas Hobbes and John Locke.

Power (Macht)

The ability to get one's way, which can include the use of violence or money even if the parties involved are unwilling.

Domination (Herrschaft)

The probability that others accept commands as valid, with the complying parties consenting to the authority.

Legitimate Authority

A reason or motive for obedience, which can be rational (legal), traditional, or charismatic.

Rational (Legal) Authority

Authority based on legal rational processes, such as voting.

Traditional Authority

Authority based on tradition, such as a hereditary monarch.

Charismatic Authority

Authority based on the inspiring vision or personality of an individual, such as Hitler.

Political Culture

A broad set of beliefs and values generally held by a country or political entity, as associated with Seymour Lipset.

Social Exchange Theory

The theory that individuals make decisions that are best for themselves, which has shaped the existing authority in society.

Discourse Ethics

A perspective on morality based on communication, where the ideal society is one that allows for free speech, as associated with Jurgen Habermas.

Types of Government (Good/Bad)

Monarchy/tyranny, aristocracy/oligarchy, constitutional government/democracy.

Liberalism

The belief that government is authorized by the consent of the governed individuals.

Democracy

Rule by "the people," where the will of the people outweighs the needs of the few.

Dominant Ideology

The worldview of the dominant group that represents the status quo.

Reformist Ideology

An ideology that suggests small changes within the existing system.

Counter/Radical Ideology

An ideology that questions the foundation of the dominant ideology.

Base/Superstructure Model

A Marxist model of society that views institutions as a superstructure dependent on the underlying base.

Modernization

The transition from traditional to industrial economies, as associated with Barrington Moore.

(Ideological) Hegemony

Gramsci's term for the intellectual and ideological control of society by the dominant class.

Legitimate Violence

Max Weber's term for violence carried out by the state, such as the police or military, which has a monopoly on legitimate violence.

Exception

A situation that cannot be covered by the law because it was not foreseen.

Friend/Enemy Distinction

Schmit's concept that groups can only survive if they can identify their enemies who have the potential to destroy them.

Populism

Political movements that claim to speak for the people, often against elites, creating an "us vs. them" dynamic.

Myth

The creation of an existential threat, real or not, to establish an "us vs. them" mentality, as proposed by Georges Sorel.

Manichaeism

Frantz Fanon's tendency to view the world as a battle between good and evil.

Secularization

The development of non-religious states, removing religion from politics and public life, as discussed by Talal Asad.

Nation

An idealistically unified image of society, representing national identity and belonging to a unit, such as being Canadian.

Nation-State

The ruling institution over an ethnic or cultural group.

The State

The overall centralized political and social apparatus responsible for decision-making and administration.

Politics

The struggle for control of the state, as whoever controls the state has the right to legitimate violence, according to Weber.

Cybernetics

The study of society's conscious mechanisms of control, such as the state, as discussed by Talcott Parsons and Niklas Luhmann.

State

Government and State Institutions:The state refers to the overall centralized political and social apparatus, while government is the branch responsible for decision-making, and state institutions carry out policies and maintain law and order.

Forms of Government

Who governs? One (monarchy/tyranny), few (aristocracy/oligarchy), many (constitutional government/democracy).

Civil Society

The rest of society that is not centrally administered like the state.

Bureaucracy

Trained/talented officials who administer organizations, as described by Max Weber.

Public Sphere

The third space between private and political life, where free debate takes place to form the public voice.

Lifeworld (Habermas)

The part of life that depends on social discussion, contrasted with the system, which prioritizes efficiency over social interaction.

Liberal Democracy

A form of government with an open public sphere, theoretically governed by citizens with protection of the right to free speech, etc.

Authoritarianism

A form of government with a strong central leader who may rely on force to ensure compliance, such as Putin.

Totalitarianism

A form of government where the state controls all aspects of social and political life, being above the law, as seen in Hitler's regime.

Separation of Powers

The division of different branches of government to avoid abuse of power, including the executive, legislative, and judiciary.

Direct Democracy

A form of government where decisions are made by the people through referendums.

Representative Democracy

A form of government where citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf.

Pluralism

A political theory that emphasizes the inclusion of many voices and the absence of a single or unified ruling ideology, with the government protecting diversity.

Citizenship

Membership in a state that grants rights and liberties protected by the institutions of government.

Civil Liberties

Freedoms such as speech, assembly, movement, and the press, where the government leaves individuals alone.

Civil Rights

Empowerment by the government to vote and participate in political processes.

Economic Class

The possession of material wealth, influencing social power.

Social Status Group

The attribution of honor, prestige, or privilege, contributing to social power.

Political Party

A group that seeks control of legal or political power, influencing social power.

Sources of Social Power

Ideological, economic, military, and political.

Polyarchy

A system of decision-making where power emerges from multiple sources, rather than a single controlling group.

Power Elite

A small group at the top who effectively control power, contrasting with polyarchy.

Vertical Mosaic

John Porter's study of class in Canada, examining the social stratification and inequality within society.

Closure

The way elites maintain their position by monopolizing opportunities, often resulting in gender-based inequalities.

Class Consciousness

A class's awareness of its shared interests as a class.

False Consciousness

Misguided beliefs held by classes that actually advance the interests of the ruling class.

Class Politics

Political behavior based on class origin,

Hierarchical Observation

Constant surveillance and evaluation of individuals by an unseen power.

Normalizing Judgment

Expectation for individuals to meet certain standards of achievement.

Examination

Direct analysis and comparison of individuals to others.

Discipline

The training of individuals to meet societal standards and expectations.

Social Programs

Education:Programs implemented by society to educate individuals.

Cliques

Small groups with self-defined norms or taboos, often excluding others.

Subculture

Distinct cultural group that differs from the mainstream.

Structural Functionalist account of education

High school prepares individuals for work and teaches them how to interact with others outside of their family.

Hidden Curriculum

Education indoctrinates individuals with hidden values and expectations, such as gender roles and societal hierarchy.

Identity Crisis

The challenge faced in adolescence to reconcile one's own sense of self with societal expectations to create a stable identity.

Total Institution

Social institutions where individuals spend their entire time, such as boarding schools or prisons.

Formal Education

Education in recognized institutions, such as universities.

Informal Education

Learning outside of formal institutions.

Meritocracy

Social rank should be based on ability rather than birth or wealth.

Credentialism

Requirement of qualifications, such as a degree, for job opportunities.

Trophy Child

Treating one's child as a status symbol based solely on their educational or sporting achievements.

3 types of capital

Social, Cultural, Economic

Desegregation

Attempt to ensure mixed ethnicity in schools to combat inequality of opportunity.

Streaming

Sorting children into classes based on their educational achievement, with higher performers given more challenging material and better job prospects.

Liberal Arts

Education required to be a free citizen and participate in civic life, as opposed to practical arts.

Critical Thinking

Ability to understand complex arguments, think independently, and express oneself verbally.

Banking Model of Education

Treating students as empty bank accounts to be filled with knowledge by the teacher.

Critical Pedagogy

Teaching that encourages students to think critically and solve problems, opposing the banking model of education.

Research University

Universities that prioritize research by teachers.

Institutional Theory

Focus on incentivization of behaviors and consequences within institutions.

Disciplinary Society

A society in which power and control are exerted through numerous small institutions and everyday instances of control.

Mass Communication

Transmission of messages from one source to a large audience simultaneously.

Mass Media

Technology, such as radio and TV, that allows for mass communication.

Public Opinion

Consciously held and explicitly expressed values, beliefs, opinions, and views of a significant part of society.

Public Sphere

Social institutions that create a space for people to come together and discuss social problems and formulate public opinion.

Hypodermic Needle Model

Public uncritically absorbs messages from the media.

Two-step flow of communication model

Media is filtered by opinion leaders who consume, interpret, and spread messages.

Gatekeeping

Process of selecting which information passes through to the public.

Agenda Setting

Media's ability to determine what themes are important in public and political debates.

Framing

How the media presents a particular news story and the spin they put on it.

Spiral of Silence Theory

Minority opinions, beliefs, and views disappear over time from public debate as people become afraid to express them.

Alternative Media

News sources that present marginalized or countercultural perspectives.

Native Advertising

Advertisements disguised as news stories.

Niche Marketing

Advertising and products targeted at specific sections of the population.

Uses & Gratifications Theory

Personal reasons people have for choosing the content they consume.