Exam 1 Developmental Psych

child development

the scientific study of patterns of growth, change and stability that occur from conception through adolescence

physical development

examining the ways in which the body's makeup helps determine behavior

cognitive development

examining the ways in which the body's makeup helps determine behavior

social development

the way in which an individual's interactions with others and social relationships grow, change and remain stable over the course of life

personality development

the study of stability and change in the enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another, ie personality traits

Topical areas in child development are:

physical, cognitive, social and personality

developmental stages

prenatal, infancy and toddlerhood, preschool, middle childhood, and adolescence

social constructions

a shared notion of reality that is widely accepted by our society/culture

cohort

a group of people born around the same time and place, experiencing similar events

history-graded influences

biological and environmental influences associated with a particular historical moment (ex:cohort effect)

age-graded influences

biological and environmental influences that are similar for individuals within a specific age group, regardless of. when or where they are raised

non-normative life events

specific, atypical events that occur in a person's life at a time when such events do not happen to most people

continuous change

development is gradual with achievements at one level building onto those at the next

discontinuous change

development occurs in distinct steps or stages, bringing behaviors that are completely different from behaviors at earlier stages

critical period

a specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequences

plasticity

the degree to which a developing behavior or physical structure is modifiable

sensitive period

a time which organisms are particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli in their environment

maturation

the process of the predetermined unfolding of genetic information

developmental psychology

the psychology of development throughout the lifespan

developmental science

an interdisciplinary approach of how development works

theory

an orderly, integrated, evidence-based set of statements that describe, predict, and explain developmental changes

psychodynamic theory

behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories and conflicts which a person has little awareness or control over

behaviorism theory

focuses on direct, observable behaviors to drive how we understand development

social learning theory

learning can happen through modeling and social interaction

constructivist theory

as we develop, we are highly influenced by the environment around us (happens through stages)

information processing theory

people actively construct their own knowledge and adapt their behaviors based on new information on a continuous lens

cognitive neuroscience theory

using physiological processes to understand development

ethological/evolutionary theory

there is adaptive values to behavior that influence our development

ecological theory

studies relationships and contextual information from the social and physical environment around us

some contextual factors that can shape development are:

SES, education, cultural values, gender role expectations, societal norms, privilege/oppression, family dynamics, social relationships, religious affiliation, childhood trauma, etc

psychosocial development

changes in our interactions with others, of others; behavior, and of themselves; suggests development happens in eight distinct phases

classical conditioning

occurs when an organism is trained to respond in a particular way to a neutral stimulus

operant conditioning

a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened in association with positive or negative consequences

reinforcement

the process by which a stimulus is provided that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated

punishment

the introduction of an unpleasant or painful stimulus or the removal or a desirable stimulus to decrease the probability that a behavior will continue in the future

behavior modification

a formal technique for promoting the frequency of desirable stimuli to decrease the probability that a behavior will continue in the future

Social-Cognitive Learning Theory

an approach that emphasizes learning by observing the behavior of another person, called a model

The four steps of social cognitive learning are:

1) An observer must pay attention and perceive the model's behaviors
2) The observer must successfully recall the behavior
3) The observer must reproduce behavior
4)The observer must be motivated to learn and repeat that behavior

cognitive theory

a focus on the processes that allow people to know, understand and think about the world

Assimilation

the process in which people understand an experience in terms of their current cognitive level

adaptation

the way in which children respond and adjust to new information

accommodation

changes in existing ways of thinking in response to encounters with new stimuli or events

Information-Processing Approaches

an approach that seeks to identify the ways in which individuals take in, use and store information

This approach assumes that even complex behaviors such as learning and thinking can be broken down into a series of individual, specific steps.

Information-Processing Approach

Metaphorically, our brain is like a _________ that processes and codes information in specific formats

computer

Neo-Piagetian Theory

Suggests that cognitive development proceeds quickly in certain areas and more slowly in others

cognitive neuroscience approach

an approach that looks at cognitive development through the lens of brain processes, specifically the neurological activity that underlies thinking, problem solving, and other cognitive behavior

Contextual theory

a perspective that considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality and social worlds

bioecological approach

suggests that five levels of the environment simultaneously influence individuals

microsystem

everyday, immediate environment

mesosystem

direct and indirect influences in the microsystem/interactions between different environments

exosystem

broader influences such as societal institutions

macrosystem

the larger cultural influences on an individual

chronosystem

the passage of time, including historical events and changes

Sociocultural theory

emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture

This theory focuses on the concept that there is a reciprocal transaction between a child's environment and the child themselves (ie environment influences child as the child also influences their environment), such as scaffolding

sociocultural theory

evolutionary theory

the theory that seeks to identify behavior is the result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors

This theory focuses on how genetics and environment combined can influence behavior

evolutionary theory

ethology

a field that examines the way in which our biology makeup influences our behaviors

behavioral genetics

studies the effects heredity have on behavior

scientific method

the process of posing and answering questions using careful, controlled techniques that include systematic, orderly observation and collection of data

The three main steps to this method are:

identifying questions of interest, formulating an explanation, and carrying out research

hypothesis

a prediction stated in a way that permits it to be tested

operationalization

the process of translating a hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed

Correlation does not imply __________

causation

______________ research focuses on finding an association or relationship, while __________ research focuses on discovering causal relationships between various factors

a.) correlational b.) experimental

correlation coefficient

a number that represents that correlation between factors ranges from +1 (perfect positive correlation) and -1 (perfect negative correlation)

A positive correlation means that as one goes higher, the other ______

also increases

A negative correlation means that as one variable increases, the other ________

decreases

When there is no relationship the correlation coefficient is ___

zero

naturalistic observation

the observation of a naturally occurring behavior in it's natural environment without any intervention

ethnography

research with the goal of understanding a culture's values and attitudes through careful, extended examination

qualitative research

used to describe rather than quantify in research; generates hypotheses to test

case studies

extensive, in-depth interviews with particular individual or small groups of individual to draw general conclusions about a broad group of people

survey research

a group of individuals are chosen to represent some larger population is asked questions about attitudes, behavior, or thinking on a given topic

psychophysiological methods

focuses on the relationship between physiological processes and behavior

experiment

a process in which an investigator, called an experimenter, devises two different experiences for subjects or participants

treatment

the procedure applied by an experimental investigator based on two different experiences devised for subjects or pariticipants

treatment group

the group in an experiment that receives the treatment

control group

the group in an experiment that receives either no treatment or an alternative treatment

independent variable

the variable that researchers manipulate in the experiment

dependent variable

the variable that researchers measure in an experiment and expect to change as a result of the experimental manipulation

random assignment

participants are assigned to different experimental groups or conditions on the basis of chance and change alone

sample

the group of participants selected for an experiment

field study

a research investigation carried out in a naturally occurring setting

laboratory study

research done in a laboratory or controlled setting

theoretical research

designed to test some developmental explanation and expand scientific knowledge

applied research

meant to provide practical solutions to immediate problems

longitudinal research

the study of the behavior of one or more study participants is measured as they age

cross-sectional research

study of people of different ages that are compared at the same point in time

sequential studies

researchers examine a number of different age groups at several points in time

research

carefully planned and systematic way of answering one or more questions, following certain guidelines that will ensure that the answers are the most objective, valid and reliable that we can find

reliability

consistency or repeatability of results

interrater reliability

multiple people get the same results

test-retest reliability

you can get similar results taking the same test or experiment at another point in time

validity

does the research and study what it claims to

internal validity

the specific design of the study; does the individual study assess the results we claim to measure

external validity

the overall use and validity of the study; does it apply to the world outside of that study?

steps to research in applied psychology

1. Find a practical problem
2. Find a research topic
3. Create a research question
4. Finding research answers

cohort-sequential research design

choose two groups of children of different ages to follow for a reduced amount of times