Studied by 144 PeopleTags & Description
child development
the scientific study of patterns of growth, change and stability that occur from conception through adolescence
physical development
examining the ways in which the body's makeup helps determine behavior
cognitive development
examining the ways in which the body's makeup helps determine behavior
social development
the way in which an individual's interactions with others and social relationships grow, change and remain stable over the course of life
personality development
the study of stability and change in the enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another, ie personality traits
Topical areas in child development are:
physical, cognitive, social and personality
developmental stages
prenatal, infancy and toddlerhood, preschool, middle childhood, and adolescence
social constructions
a shared notion of reality that is widely accepted by our society/culture
cohort
a group of people born around the same time and place, experiencing similar events
history-graded influences
biological and environmental influences associated with a particular historical moment (ex:cohort effect)
age-graded influences
biological and environmental influences that are similar for individuals within a specific age group, regardless of. when or where they are raised
non-normative life events
specific, atypical events that occur in a person's life at a time when such events do not happen to most people
continuous change
development is gradual with achievements at one level building onto those at the next
discontinuous change
development occurs in distinct steps or stages, bringing behaviors that are completely different from behaviors at earlier stages
critical period
a specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequences
plasticity
the degree to which a developing behavior or physical structure is modifiable
sensitive period
a time which organisms are particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli in their environment
maturation
the process of the predetermined unfolding of genetic information
developmental psychology
the psychology of development throughout the lifespan
developmental science
an interdisciplinary approach of how development works
theory
an orderly, integrated, evidence-based set of statements that describe, predict, and explain developmental changes
psychodynamic theory
behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories and conflicts which a person has little awareness or control over
behaviorism theory
focuses on direct, observable behaviors to drive how we understand development
social learning theory
learning can happen through modeling and social interaction
constructivist theory
as we develop, we are highly influenced by the environment around us (happens through stages)
information processing theory
people actively construct their own knowledge and adapt their behaviors based on new information on a continuous lens
cognitive neuroscience theory
using physiological processes to understand development
ethological/evolutionary theory
there is adaptive values to behavior that influence our development
ecological theory
studies relationships and contextual information from the social and physical environment around us
some contextual factors that can shape development are:
SES, education, cultural values, gender role expectations, societal norms, privilege/oppression, family dynamics, social relationships, religious affiliation, childhood trauma, etc
psychosocial development
changes in our interactions with others, of others; behavior, and of themselves; suggests development happens in eight distinct phases
classical conditioning
occurs when an organism is trained to respond in a particular way to a neutral stimulus
operant conditioning
a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened in association with positive or negative consequences
reinforcement
the process by which a stimulus is provided that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated
punishment
the introduction of an unpleasant or painful stimulus or the removal or a desirable stimulus to decrease the probability that a behavior will continue in the future
behavior modification
a formal technique for promoting the frequency of desirable stimuli to decrease the probability that a behavior will continue in the future
Social-Cognitive Learning Theory
an approach that emphasizes learning by observing the behavior of another person, called a model
The four steps of social cognitive learning are:
An observer must pay attention and perceive the model's behaviors
The observer must successfully recall the behavior
The observer must reproduce behavior 4)The observer must be motivated to learn and repeat that behavior
cognitive theory
a focus on the processes that allow people to know, understand and think about the world
Assimilation
the process in which people understand an experience in terms of their current cognitive level
adaptation
the way in which children respond and adjust to new information
accommodation
changes in existing ways of thinking in response to encounters with new stimuli or events
Information-Processing Approaches
an approach that seeks to identify the ways in which individuals take in, use and store information
This approach assumes that even complex behaviors such as learning and thinking can be broken down into a series of individual, specific steps.
Information-Processing Approach
Metaphorically, our brain is like a _________ that processes and codes information in specific formats
computer
Neo-Piagetian Theory
Suggests that cognitive development proceeds quickly in certain areas and more slowly in others
cognitive neuroscience approach
an approach that looks at cognitive development through the lens of brain processes, specifically the neurological activity that underlies thinking, problem solving, and other cognitive behavior
Contextual theory
a perspective that considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality and social worlds
bioecological approach
suggests that five levels of the environment simultaneously influence individuals
microsystem
everyday, immediate environment
mesosystem
direct and indirect influences in the microsystem/interactions between different environments
exosystem
broader influences such as societal institutions
macrosystem
the larger cultural influences on an individual
chronosystem
the passage of time, including historical events and changes
Sociocultural theory
emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture
This theory focuses on the concept that there is a reciprocal transaction between a child's environment and the child themselves (ie environment influences child as the child also influences their environment), such as scaffolding
sociocultural theory
evolutionary theory
the theory that seeks to identify behavior is the result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors
This theory focuses on how genetics and environment combined can influence behavior
evolutionary theory
ethology
a field that examines the way in which our biology makeup influences our behaviors
behavioral genetics
studies the effects heredity have on behavior
scientific method
the process of posing and answering questions using careful, controlled techniques that include systematic, orderly observation and collection of data
The three main steps to this method are:
identifying questions of interest, formulating an explanation, and carrying out research
hypothesis
a prediction stated in a way that permits it to be tested
operationalization
the process of translating a hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed
Correlation does not imply __________
causation
______________ research focuses on finding an association or relationship, while __________ research focuses on discovering causal relationships between various factors
a.) correlational b.) experimental
correlation coefficient
a number that represents that correlation between factors ranges from +1 (perfect positive correlation) and -1 (perfect negative correlation)
A positive correlation means that as one goes higher, the other ______
also increases
A negative correlation means that as one variable increases, the other ________
decreases
When there is no relationship the correlation coefficient is ___
zero
naturalistic observation
the observation of a naturally occurring behavior in it's natural environment without any intervention
ethnography
research with the goal of understanding a culture's values and attitudes through careful, extended examination
qualitative research
used to describe rather than quantify in research; generates hypotheses to test
case studies
extensive, in-depth interviews with particular individual or small groups of individual to draw general conclusions about a broad group of people
survey research
a group of individuals are chosen to represent some larger population is asked questions about attitudes, behavior, or thinking on a given topic
psychophysiological methods
focuses on the relationship between physiological processes and behavior
experiment
a process in which an investigator, called an experimenter, devises two different experiences for subjects or participants
treatment
the procedure applied by an experimental investigator based on two different experiences devised for subjects or pariticipants
treatment group
the group in an experiment that receives the treatment
control group
the group in an experiment that receives either no treatment or an alternative treatment
independent variable
the variable that researchers manipulate in the experiment
dependent variable
the variable that researchers measure in an experiment and expect to change as a result of the experimental manipulation
random assignment
participants are assigned to different experimental groups or conditions on the basis of chance and change alone
sample
the group of participants selected for an experiment