History Final

Lt Col Barnes Class

Strategic Level

The highest level of war where national leaders set long-term goals, allocate resources, and determine why and under what conditions a nation goes to war. Focuses on achieving broad political and military end states.

Schlieffen Plan

Germany’s pre-WWI plan to quickly defeat France by sweeping through Belgium, encircling Paris, and then turning east to fight Russia. Relied on rapid movement and overwhelming force but failed due to logistical issues and strong Allied resistance.

Adolf Hitler

Dictator of Nazi Germany whose strategic objectives—territorial expansion, racial ideology, and total war—drove Europe into WWII. He controlled Germany’s national strategy and directed major military decisions.

Joe Rochefort

U.S. naval intelligence officer whose cryptanalysis broke key Japanese codes before the Battle of Midway, allowing the U.S. to anticipate Japanese movements and win a decisive victory.

Mao Zedong

Leader of the Chinese Communist forces who used protracted warfare and guerrilla strategy to wear down opponents. Represents the strategic use of attrition and political mobilization to win long conflicts.

Al-Qaeda

A transnational terrorist organization whose strategy emphasizes asymmetric warfare—small, decentralized cells targeting political, economic, and symbolic structures to achieve ideological goals.

Operational Level

The level of war that links strategy to tactics. It focuses on campaigns, sequencing major operations, coordinating logistics, maneuver, movement of forces, and shaping battles to achieve strategic goals.

Helmuth von Moltke the Younger

German Chief of Staff in WWI who modified the Schlieffen Plan. His changes—weakening the right wing and strengthening forces in the east—contributed to operational failures in 1914.

Benito Mussolini

Italian fascist leader whose poor strategic decision-making and weak military structure led to repeated operational failures in WWII, requiring German intervention to stabilize Italy’s fronts.

Operation Overlord

The Allied D-Day invasion of Nazi-occupied France (June 6, 1944). A massive operational campaign integrating land, air, and naval forces to open a Western front and weaken Germany.

Marshall Plan

A U.S. post-WWII economic recovery program aimed at stabilizing Europe. While not a battle plan, it served a strategic-operational purpose by preventing Soviet influence through economic strength.

Osama Bin Laden

Leader of Al-Qaeda who orchestrated 9/11. Represented the operational and strategic direction of a global terrorist network using asymmetric attacks to influence U.S. policy.

Tactical Level

The level of war focused on individual battles and engagements. It involves how units maneuver, fight, and apply force to achieve immediate, localized objectives that contribute to operational success.

Triple Entente

WWI alliance between France, Russia, and Britain, formed to counter Germany and the Triple Alliance. The alliance shaped strategic and operational coordination in WWI.

Hideki Tojo

Prime Minister of Japan during WWII who approved the attack on Pearl Harbor. Known for directing Japan’s wartime military strategy and expansion across the Pacific.

Battle of Midway

Turning point of the Pacific War (June 1942). U.S. codebreaking enabled a surprise attack that destroyed four Japanese carriers, shifting strategic initiative to the Allies.

Pusan Perimeter

Defensive line held by UN and U.S. forces in the first months of the Korean War (1950). Successful defense prevented South Korea’s collapse and allowed for later offensive operations.

Taliban

Islamic fundamentalist movement that governed Afghanistan and provided sanctuary to Al-Qaeda. Known for guerrilla tactics and prolonged insurgency against U.S./NATO forces.

Center of Gravity (COG)

The source of a force’s strength—moral, physical, or organizational—that is essential for maintaining combat power. Destroying or neutralizing it disrupts enemy operations

Triple Alliance

WWI alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy (though Italy later defected). Formed as a counterbalance to the Triple Entente.

Billy Mitchell

U.S. airpower pioneer who argued that aircraft could be decisive in warfare. Demonstrated the power of air attack by sinking captured battleships; influenced the growth of the USAF.

Battle of Guadalcanal

First major U.S. offensive in the Pacific (1942–43). A long, brutal campaign that stopped Japanese expansion and shifted momentum to the Allies.

Chosin Reservoir

Brutal Korean War battle (1950) where U.S. Marines fought their way out of encirclement by Chinese forces in freezing conditions. Demonstrated discipline, logistics, and tactical resilience.

Operation Anaconda

Early Afghanistan War operation (2002) aimed at destroying Taliban and Al-Qaeda fighters in the Shah-i-Kot Valley. Revealed weaknesses in joint coordination but demonstrated evolving U.S. air-ground integration.

Attrition

A form of strategy focused on wearing down the enemy over time through continuous losses in manpower, material, and morale. Timeframe is long, targeting mainly military forces.

Battle of Tannenberg

WWI battle (1914) where Germany encircled and destroyed a larger Russian army. Demonstrated superior German mobility, coordination, and use of interior lines.

Giulio Douhet

Italian airpower theorist who argued that strategic bombing could break an enemy’s will by striking cities and industry. Influential in shaping early airpower doctrine.

George Kenney

Commander of Allied air forces in the Southwest Pacific in WWII. Known for innovation, close air support, and helping isolate Japanese forces through air interdiction.

MiG Alley

Nickname for the northwestern region of North Korea where intense jet combat occurred between U.S. F-86 Sabres and Soviet-built MiG-15s during the Korean War.

Operation Iraqi Freedom

U.S.-led invasion of Iraq (2003) aimed at overthrowing Saddam Hussein and eliminating supposed WMDs. Rapid initial success followed by prolonged insurgency.

Annihilation

A form of strategy seeking rapid, decisive destruction of an enemy’s forces—typically through overwhelming force in a short timeframe. Focuses primarily on military targets.

Vladimir Lenin

Leader of the Bolshevik Revolution. Pulled Russia out of WWI via the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and promoted political/military revolution as a means of achieving power.

Sir Hugh Trenchard

Considered the father of the Royal Air Force. Advocated for offensive airpower and the idea that air forces should strike deep to maintain initiative.

Operation Downfall

Planned but never executed Allied invasion of Japan during WWII. Estimated massive casualties, ultimately avoided due to Japan’s surrender after atomic bombs.

Kim Il-Sung

Founding leader of North Korea. Ordered the 1950 invasion of South Korea, which triggered the Korean War.

Operation Enduring Freedom

U.S.-led campaign in Afghanistan (2001–2014) following 9/11. Aimed to destroy Al-Qaeda and remove the Taliban from power.

Exhaustion

A form of strategy aimed at eroding an enemy’s society, economy, and internal stability rather than just military forces. Achieves victory by breaking national will over a long period.

Zimmerman Note

1917 German telegram proposing an alliance with Mexico against the U.S. Intercepted and decoded, contributing to U.S. entry into WWI.

Blitzkrieg

German “lightning war” doctrine using rapid, coordinated attacks by tanks, aircraft, and mechanized infantry to break enemy lines before they can react.

Hermann Goering

Commander of the German Luftwaffe in WWII. Oversaw early successes but later failures such as the Battle of Britain.

Syngman Rhee

First president of South Korea. His government was supported by the U.S. during the Korean War against North Korean and Chinese forces.

Surge

Refers to the 2007 increase in U.S. troop levels during the Iraq War. Improved security by changing counterinsurgency strategy and increasing presence on the ground.

Battle of the Somme

Massive WWI battle (1916) marked by weeklong artillery barrages and catastrophic casualties. Demonstrated the difficulty of attacking trench systems and led to tactical changes.

Dunkirk

1940 evacuation where Allied forces escaped encirclement by German armies in France. Saved over 300,000 troops, preserving the British Army.

Wernher von Braun

German rocket scientist who developed the V-2 rocket, later key figure in the U.S. space program and the Apollo missions.

David Petraeus

U.S. Army general who led the Iraq War Surge and heavily influenced modern counterinsurgency doctrine (COIN).

Otto von Bismarck

Prussian statesman who unified Germany through limited wars with Denmark, Austria, and France. Practiced “Realpolitik” and preferred limited war with limited ends.

Battle of Verdun

Longest battle of WWI (1916). German goal was to “bleed France white.” Ultimately a French defensive victory, symbolizing national resolve and the horrors of attrition warfare.

Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact

1939 non-aggression pact between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. Included secret agreements to divide Eastern Europe. Enabled Germany to invade Poland and start WWII.

Ho Chi Minh

Leader of the Vietnamese communist movement (Viet Minh). Strategically combined nationalism and guerrilla warfare to defeat France, then the U.S.-backed South Vietnam.

Battle of Königgrätz

Decisive 1866 Austro-Prussian War battle where Prussia used superior rail mobilization, staff work, and the needle gun to destroy Austrian forces. Paved the way for German unification.

Gen John J. Pershing

Commander of the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) in WWI. Insisted Americans fight as an independent force and organized the U.S. Army’s modern staff system.

Dowding System

British early-warning air defense network used in the Battle of Britain. Combined radar, observers, and centralized command to intercept German aircraft efficiently.

Ngo Dinh Diem

First president of South Vietnam. Anti-communist but authoritarian; his policies contributed to instability and strengthened the Vietcong insurgency.

Needle Gun

Prussian breech-loading rifle with high rate of fire (6 rounds/min). Major advantage in mid-19th-century wars, contributing to Prussian victories.

Brusilov Offensive

1916 Russian offensive that achieved major breakthroughs against Austria-Hungary. Ultimately stalled but inflicted huge casualties and destabilized the Central Powers.

Operation Sea Lion

Germany’s planned invasion of Britain in 1940. Never executed due to Luftwaffe’s failure to win air superiority in the Battle of Britain.

Vietcong

Communist guerrilla force in South Vietnam. Used ambushes, tunnels, and political warfare to weaken South Vietnam and the U.S.

Battle of Tsushima

Decisive 1905 naval battle of the Russo-Japanese War. Japan annihilated the Russian fleet; demonstrated the importance of training, technology, and naval maneuver.

Battle of Belleau Wood

1918 WWI battle where U.S. Marines halted the German advance. Known for fierce close-quarters fighting; earned Marines the nickname “Devil Dogs.”

Air Marshal Sir Hugh Dowding

Commander of RAF Fighter Command during the Battle of Britain. Used the Dowding System to defeat the Luftwaffe and prevent a German invasion.

My Lai

1968 Vietnam War massacre of civilians by U.S. soldiers. Damaged U.S. credibility and intensified antiwar sentiment.

USS Maine

Battleship that exploded in Havana Harbor in 1898. Although the cause is disputed, its destruction helped spark the Spanish-American War.

Treaty of Versailles

1919 treaty ending WWI. Blamed Germany for the war, imposed huge reparations, restricted its military, and redrew borders.

Georgy Zhukov

Top Soviet general in WWII. Led defenses of Moscow and Stalingrad, and commanded the final assault on Berlin.

Tet Offensive

1968 Vietcong/North Vietnamese surprise offensive across South Vietnam. Militarily costly for the communists but strategically weakened U.S. public support.

Elihu Root

U.S. Secretary of War who reformed the Army after the Spanish-American War. Created the Army War College and established the General Staff system.

Attack

One of the fundamental missions of airpower: striking enemy forces, infrastructure, and key targets to achieve tactical and operational effects.

Operation Barbarossa

Germany’s 1941 invasion of the Soviet Union. Initially successful but ultimately failed due to logistics, weather, and Soviet resistance.

Vietnamization

U.S. strategy of turning combat responsibilities over to South Vietnamese forces while gradually withdrawing U.S. troops.

Alfred Thayer Mahan

American naval strategist who argued that sea power determines national strength. Influenced global naval expansion in the late 19th century.

Mobility

Airpower mission focused on moving troops, supplies, and equipment quickly across theaters to support operations.

Red Purge

Post-WWII political repression in Japan aimed at removing communists from government and society, influenced heavily by U.S. occupation forces.

Operation Opera

1981 Israeli airstrike destroying Iraq’s Osirak nuclear reactor. Prevented Iraq from developing nuclear weapons.

General Staff Act of 1903

U.S. Army reform establishing the Chief of Staff system and creating a coordinated, professional military leadership structure.

Command of the Air

Airpower concept (Douhet) describing the ability to control the air domain and prevent enemy air operations while enabling friendly operations.

Jimmy Doolittle

U.S. aviator who led the 1942 Doolittle Raid on Japan. Boosted U.S. morale and demonstrated Japan’s vulnerability.

Six-Day War

1967 conflict where Israel fought Egypt, Syria, and Jordan, achieving rapid victory through preemptive airstrikes and armored maneuver.

Wright Brothers

Inventors of the first practical airplane (1903). Their work initiated modern aviation and military airpower.

Isoroku Yamamoto

Commander of the Japanese Navy in WWII. Planned the Pearl Harbor attack and later lost naval superiority at Midway.

Saddam Hussein

Iraqi dictator whose invasion of Kuwait triggered the Gulf War. Later removed from power during Operation Iraqi Freedom.

Benjamin Foulois

Early U.S. aviator who helped develop Army aviation and articulated early airpower missions: command of the air, ISR, attack, and mobility.

Erwin Rommel

German field marshal known as the “Desert Fox.” Skilled in maneuver warfare during the North African Campaign.

Norman Schwarzkopf

U.S. general who commanded Coalition forces in the Gulf War (Operation Desert Storm), known for rapid and decisive operations.

1st Aero Squadron

First U.S. military aviation unit. Used in the Punitive Expedition and early WWI for reconnaissance and communications.

Battle of the Atlantic

Longest WWII campaign. German U-boats attempted to cut Allied shipping; Allied technology and convoy systems eventually prevailed.

Operation Desert Shield/Storm

Desert Shield (1990): U.S. defense of Saudi Arabia after Iraq invaded Kuwait.
Desert Storm (1991): Coalition offensive that expelled Iraqi forces through air and ground operations.

ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance, Reconnaissance)

Airpower mission providing information on enemy positions, capabilities, and movements to support tactical and operational decisions.

Chester Nimitz

U.S. Pacific Fleet commander in WWII. Key architect of island-hopping strategy and victories at Midway and the Philippine Sea.

Operation GOTHIC SERPENT

1993 U.S. mission in Somalia to capture warlord lieutenants. Resulted in the Battle of Mogadishu (“Black Hawk Down”).

Objective

Principle of war requiring that every military action aim at a clearly defined and achievable goal.

Unity of Command

Ensuring all forces operate under one responsible commander to maintain coherence and effectiveness.

Mass

Concentrating combat power at the decisive point to achieve overwhelming force.

Offensive

Maintaining initiative by acting rather than reacting; striking the enemy to dictate tempo.

Maneuver

Using movement and positioning to place the enemy at a disadvantage and exploit weaknesses.

Economy of Force

Allocating minimum necessary combat power to secondary efforts to maximize resources at decisive points.

Security

Preventing the enemy from gaining unexpected advantage; protecting forces, information, and operations.

Surprise

Striking the enemy at a time or place they are unprepared for to maximize advantage.

Simplicity

Clear, uncomplicated plans and orders to reduce confusion and enhance execution.