Czech State exams communications and media | Quizlet

Characteristics of media effects (behavioral, attitudinal, cognitive, physiological).

Characteristics of media effects (behavioral, attitudinal, cognitive, physiological).

Stemming from media exposure → can be in/direct, immediate/delayed, fleeting/lasting

These effects can interact with each other

Behavioral Effects

Refers to observable changes in actions and decisions resulting in media consumption

Examples: adopting a new behavior, reinforcing an existing one, or modifying an existing one

Research on media effects often focuses on identifying behavior changes as a primary indicator of media influence

Attitudinal effects

Involves changes in individuals’ evaluations, opinions, or predispositions towards objects, people or situations

These effects can range from shifts in opinions on political issues to changes in attitudes towards social groups

Examples include attitude formation, reinforcement, or change

Cognitive Effects

Relates to alterations in knowledge, beliefs, and information processing

Individuals may acquire new information, develop new understandings, or alter their perceptions of reality through media exposure

Examples: learning facts, developing new insights, changing perception of the world

Physiological Effects

Refers to the bodily or physical responses triggered by media exposure

These can include changes in heart rate, brain activity, or other physiological markers

Examples: flight or flight response, increased heart rate, or other physical reactions

Cultivation theory (Gerbner).

Long term exposure to media shapes viewers perceptions of reality

How cultivation works

Repeated exposure, accessibility to media messages, media can reinforce existing beliefs and attitudes

Examples: heavy viewers of crime dramas may overestimate the frequency of violent crime and believe they are more likely to be victims of crime

Criticisms: underestimates critical thinking, active media engagement, personal experiences

Agenda setting theory (McCombs and Shaw).

Media doesn't tell us what to think, it tells us what to think about

Media determines which issues receive the most attention

This increased visibility and attention leads the public to perceive these issues as more important

Example: if the media consistently covers a particular political issue, the public will likely perceive it as a significant problem

Media has the power to shape public discourse

Social cognitive theory / modelling theory.

Argues that learning occurs through observation, imitation, and modeling of others' behaviors rather than solely through direct experience

This involves imitating the actions and behaviors of a model, whether it's a person, a character in media, or even an abstract concept

How it works: attention → retention → production → motivation

Example: a child observing a parent reading a book might be more likely to develop an interest in reading themselves

Uses and gratifications theory (Blumler and Katz).

Proposes that people actively choose media to satisfy specific needs and desires rather than passively absorbing whatever is presented to them

It focuses on why individuals use media and what gratifications they derive from it, rather than on the effects of media on them

Active audience: makes conscious choices about what to watch, read, or listen to based on their needs, desires, and goals

UGT identifies various needs media can satisfy: diversion, personal relationships, personal identity, surveillance

Example: a student might use youtube for educational purposes, while another might use it for entertainment

Criticisms:

Assumes individuals are always aware of their motivations

Challenging to measure and categorize all the different needs/gratifications

Schema (script) theory.

Explains how our minds organize knowledge into mental frameworks called schemas

Schemas

Mental structures that represent general knowledge about a concept or situation

They help us interpret and understand new information by relating it to what we already know

Scripts

A type of scheme that outlines the typical sequence of events in a familiar situation

Example: a restaurant script includes actions like ordering, eating, and paying

They help with organization, interpretation, expectations, memory

Theoretical frames regarding (inter)cultural values (e.g. Hofstede, Trompenaars, Hall).

Hofstede's model (provides a structured approach to understanding cultural differences)

Power Distance

High → acceptance of a hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and which needs no further justification

Low → people strive to equalize the distribution of power and demand justification for inequalities of power

Individualism vs. Collectivism

Individualism → as a preference for a loosely knit social framework, personal goals (USA)

Collectivism → Tight- knit framework in society, group goals (Japan)

Masculinity vs. Femininity

Masculinity → preference in society for achievement, heroism, assertiveness, and material rewards for success

Femininity → preference for cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak, values quality of life

Uncertainty Avoidance

High → maintains rigid codes of belief and behavior and are intolerant of unorthodox behaviors and ideas

Low → societies maintain a more relaxed attitude in which practice counts more than principles

Long term orientation vs. short term normative orientation

High → pragmatic approach, they encourage thrift and efforts in modern education as a way to prepare for the future

Low → societies prefer to maintain time-honored traditions and norms while viewing societal change with suspicion

Indulgence vs. Restraint

Indulgence → societies that allow relatively free gratification of basic and natural human drives related to enjoying life and having fun

Restraint → societies that suppress gratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms

Trompenaars' Cultural dimensions (focuses on dilemmas and resolutions, qualitative)

Universalism vs. Particularism

To what extent do the same rules apply in all situations, or are they different according to circumstances?

Individualism vs. Collectivism

Is it more important to be able to act as an individual or to be ab

Differences between broad approaches to communication (behavioural, sociological, cultural/semiotics).

Behavioral Approach (observable actions and reactions)

The study of what people do, not what they feel or think

How they react to certain stimuli

How people can be trained to react in determined ways

Strengths → makes scientific claims, well-funded

Weaknesses → may oversimplify the complexity of communication by neglecting internal factors and contextual influences, people don’t react naturally in a lab, some experiments are cruel and painful

Sociological Approach (communication within social structures and contexts)

Includes social roles, group dynamics, social networks, and cultural norms

Example: a sociological study might explore how communication patterns differ between hierarchical organizations and egalitarian teams

Strengths → provides insights into how social factors shape communication and how communication in turn influences social structures

Weaknesses → can be broad and may not always offer specific predictions about individual communication behaviors

Cultural / Semiotics Approach

How meaning is created and shared through symbols, signs and cultural systems

Key concepts: signs, symbols, narratives, and cultural context

Strengths → offers a rich understanding of the symbolic dimensions of communication and how cultural contexts shape meaning

Weaknesses → can be complex and difficult to apply in a standardized way, requires deep cultural knowledge

Linguistic relativity and the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.

The language one speaks shapes one’s understanding of reality

This means that different languages, with their unique structures and vocabulary, can lead speakers to perceive and categorize the world in distinct ways

Strong Sapir-Whorf (Linguistic Determinism)

This view suggests that language determines thought, meaning the structure of a language dictates how its speakers can think

Weak Sapir-Whorf (Linguistic Relativity)

This view suggests that language influences thought, meaning the structure of a language affects how its speakers tend to think, but doesn’t completely determine their cognitive processes

Criticisms

Lack of empirical support, or they argue that it's tied to cognitive biases and cultural factors

Primary types of Advertising. Differences between the above the line, below the line, and through the line approaches.

Above the Line

broad, mass-market campaigns for brand awareness

Channels: traditional media like TV, radio, print, and billboards

Goal → to create a broad impact and reach a large number of potential customers

Example: a national television commercial for a new car

Below the Line

Targeting specific audiences with personalized messages

Channels: direct mail, email marketing, in-store promotions, events, and social media engagement

Goal → to drive conversions and build deeper connections with a smaller, defined audience

Example: a targeted email campaign offering a discount to customers who have previously purchased from a specific product category

Through the Line

Integrating above-the-line and below-the-line strategies for a holistic marketing approach and to maximize effectiveness

Channels: combines mass media with targeted, personalized tactics

Goal → to achieve a balance between broad reach and targeted engagement maximizing both brand awareness and conversion rates

Example: a company launches a TV commercial (ATL) to raise brand awareness then uses social media (BTL) to engage with viewers who interacted with the ad

Second language acquisition (Skinner, Chomsky).

Skinner’s Behaviorist Theory

Believed language is learned through Operant conditioning where positive reinforcement (praise/rewards) for correct utterances and negative reinforcement (correction/silence) for incorrect ones thus shape language development

Imitation and repetition → children learn by imitating the language they hear and repeating it with the repetition being reinforced by their environment

Blank slate → skinner viewed children as essentially blank slates, with their language development primarily driven by external stimuli and environmental factors

Chomsky’s Nativist Theory

Chomsky argued that humans are born with an innate capacity for language → a language acquisition device (LAD) which contains pre-programmed linguistic knowledge

This innate capacity includes universal grammar, a set of universal principles underlying all human languages

Emphasized the creative aspect of language indicating an underlying generative capacity

Critiques

Chomsky criticized Skinner's theory for failing to account for the creative and generative nature of language and the speed and complexity of language acquisition

Chomsky’s idea of an LAD has not been supported by genetic or neurological studies

Nonverbal dimensions of interpersonal communication.

Kinesics (Body Language) → posture, gestures, and overall body movements

Facial Expressions → the face is a powerful tool for expressing a wide range of emotions (facial muscles, eyebrows, smiles, etc.)

Eye contact → maintaining eye contact shows engagement and attentiveness, while avoiding eye contact can signal disinterest or discomfort

Vocalics (Paralanguage) → how something is said, rather than what is said. Includes tone of voice, pitch, volume, and speaking rate can alter the meaning of a verbal message

Proxemics (personal space) → the distance we maintain from others during interactions. Different cultures have different norms regarding personal space, and violating these norms can lead to discomfort or misunderstanding

Haptics (touch) → physical touch can convey a range of emotions from affection to aggression. The meaning of touch can vary greatly depending on the context and relationship between individuals.

Chronemics (time) → the way we use and perceive time in communication can also convey messages.

Also 5cs

Context → the situation or environment in which communication occurs significantly influences the interpretation of nonverbal cues

Clusters → nonverbal cues rarely appear in isolation, they often overlap

Congruence → the alignment between verbal and nonverbal. When words and body language match is suggest sincerity and authenticity, on the other hand when nonverbal cues contradict the spoken words it can indicate deception or internal conflict

Consistency → observing a person's baseline behavior in relaxed situations helps identity deviations when they are under stress

Culture → cultural background significantly shapes nonverbal communication styles

Verbal dimensions of interpersonal communication.

Content Dimension → the literal meaning of the words spoken or written. Explicit meaning.

Relational dimension → reveals the nature of the relationship between the communications. It’s conveyed through both verbal and nonverbal cues and the context of the communication.

Key aspects

Power and control → communication can reflect power dynamics between individuals

Intimacy and closeness → the way people communicate can indicate the level of intimacy in their relationship.

Trust and Affection → verbal and nonverbal cues can convey feelings of trust, warmth, or lack thereof

Types of verbal communication

Interpersonal → between two people

Intrapersonal → in your own head

Small group → 1-15 people ish

Public communication → a big audience

Media/technological determinism (McLuhan/Innis et al.)

The theory suggesting that technology, including media, is the primary driver of social and cultural change. It posits that technological advancements shape how individuals think, feel, and act and thus fundamentally alter the structure and operation of society.

Emphasizes technology's role in shaping society, NOT society shaping technology

Hard determinism = technology is the sole determinant of social change

Soft determinism = acknowledges that technology plays a significant role but also recognizes other factors influencing societal development

Marshall McLuhan

Supporter of technological determinism

"The medium is the message" → the characteristics of the medium itself, rather than the content it carries, thus shape our perceptions and thoughts, and interactions within a society

Criticisms → oversimlifying the relationship between technology and society. Neglects the role of human agency and social factors.

Historical eras:

Tribal era → dominated by oral communication, fostering close-knit communities

Literate Era → the introduction of writing led to linear thinking and a more individualistic society

Print era → the printing press brought mass production of books and standardized knowledge, further shaping individualistic and national identities

Electronic Era → radio, television, and the internet have created a 'global village' connecting people and information across vast distances

Harold Innis

Argued that communication technologies are not neutral tools → they shape the strucurre, stability, and direction of societies.

Believed in a balance between time-bias and space-biase → overreliance on one leads to instability

The material and technical form of media influences what can be communicated, how its stored, and who has access

For example: print fosters standarization and nationalism; electronic media fostre simu

The political economy of communication.

Political Economy Terminology

Mergers (businesses grow by merging)

Acquisitions (a bigger company absorbs a smaller company)

Economics of scale

Businesses merge by creating huge corporations

Horizontal integration

Businesses merge/take over companies in the same area of business

Vertical integration

Businesses merge/take over companies working at a different stage of the production process

Monopolies

Businesses that maximize profit by destroying competitors

Internationalization

Nationally-based companies open operations overseas, maximize profit, reduce costs

Diversification

Companies engage in a range of different businesses, if one sector fails the other can offset it

Consolidation

Companies take drastic steps to reduce costs

Cross ownership

Companies active in one sector of the media may be allowed to own companies in another sector (in some countries there are strict rules against this)

The Political economy approach studies

The relationship between communication and social change

How resources are managed and fought over

Power relations (who controls production, distribution, and consumption of resources)

Trends(e.g. Globalization, (de)regulation) and their impact on communication processes and content

The political environment and legislation (e.g. how media are regulated by laws and attitudes of governments to media)

How business, government policies, and structures affect culture

How businesses/governments affect media content (e.g. how a news story is told)

The balance of state intervention and private enterprise in effective mass communication

Which groups and individuals may be included in or excluded from media production and consumption and why

Social and political inequalities resulting from exclusion

Freedom of speech and freedom of information

Key political economists

Karl mark → Class and the factors o

Semiotic approaches to communication.

Text → all varieties of messages, signs, and their content

Meaning → how people make sense of messages and signs, how meaning gets anchored by convention and context

Identifying and categorizing → the reality is how we see things in relation to each other

Sign → an object that has meaning

Signifier →means of expressing the sign (word, image, sound)

Signified → the concept or meaning the signifier refers to

Types of signs

Icon → sign that resembles what it represents (picture of a tree)

Index → sign directly connected to what it represents (smoke = fire)

Symbol → sign whose meaning is culturally learned, arbitrary (country flags)

Syntagm

A sign is linked to another one (a syntagmatic or associative relationship)

Signs link together to generate meaning

Ex. → all the scenes of a movie put together

Paradigm

A sign is substituted by another one (paradigmatic relationship)

Individual signs link in a syntagm, each is chosen from a range of possible alternatives aka "paradigmatic choices

The ingredients are paradigms

The cookie itself is the syntagm (aka final product)

Denotation → the literal, surface meaning of a sign (obvious)

Connotation → the cultural, emotional, or associated meaning of a sign

Codes

Systems of signs governed by rules that audiences understand

Residual → codes from the past, that may be revamped (nostalgia, retro)

Dominant/Mainstream → current codes fashionable in the present

Emergent → new thinking, anticipating codes of the future

Myths

means dominant ideologies and ideas that are constructed and rarely questioned

Level of meaning that may be even deeper than connotation

These myths can be spread by media, possibly distorting 'real' understanding

Ex → "Nation: It is right to love, support, and protect your country"

Open text → allows multiple interpretations, invites active decoding

Closed text → restri

Qualitative research methods (e.g. interviews, focus groups, participant observation, ethnography).

Aim to gather rich, in-depth information about human experiences, perceptions, and behaviors

Looking for the why and how behind phenomena, rather than just quantifying data

Interviewer

One-on-one conversations to gather detailed information from individuals about their experiences and perspectives

Helps researchers explore individual experiences, motivations, and behaviors in depth

Use open ended questions, encourage detailed responses, and allow for follow-up questions

Advantages → provides rich, detailed data, allows for flexibility, and builds rapport with participants

Disadvantages → time consuming, researcher bias, difficult to genrealize findings

Focus groups

Involve a smaller group of people (6-10), discussing a specific topic under the guidance of a moderator

Gather information on group dynamics, shared experiences, and diverse perspectives on a particular issue

Typically involving open-ended questions and follow up probes

Advantages → provides insights into group dynamics, uncovers a wide range of opinions quickly, cost effective

Disadvantages → influenced by group dynamics, may not be representative of the wider population, and may be difficult to analyze

Participant observation

Involves the researcher actively participating in the setting or group they are studying while also observing and taking notes

To gain an insider's perspective and understand the nuances of a particular context or culture

Requires researchers to be immersed in the setting for an extended period, building trust and rapport with participants

Advantages → provides rich, contextualized data, allows for in-depth understanding of behaviors and social interactions

Disadvantages → can be time consuming, difficult to maintain objectivity, challenging to analyze the data

Ethnography

A type of participant observation that involves a long-term, i

The Gramscian concept of hegemony.

The position of the strongest and most powerful and therefore able to control others → They decide what the cultural norm is

The dominance of a culturally diverse society by the ruling class who manipulate the culture of said society - their beliefs, and explanations, perceptions, and values- so that the worldview of the ruling class becomes the accepted cultural norm

The dominant ideology then misrepresents the social, political, and economic status quo as natural, inevitable, and perceptual social conditions that benefit every social class (as opposed to the ruling class)

Example: Rape culture

A society or environment whose prevailing social attitudes have the effect of normalizing or trivialzing sexual assault and abuse

Is perpetuated through the use of misogynistic language the objectification of women’s bodies, and the glamorization of sexual violence

Examples

Blaming the victim; publicly scrutinizing her dress, mental state, motives, and history

Trivializing sexual assault

Inflating false rape report statistics; refusing to take rape accusations seriously

Defining manhood as dominant and sexually aggressive and womanhood as submissive and sexually passive

Characteristics of Public relations. How it differs from marketing and advertising.

Public Relations

Building and maintaining a positive public image and reputation

Cultivating positive relationships with stakeholders (media, customers, and general public)

Methods

Managing media relations (press releases, media interviews)

Crisis communication

Community engagement

Social media management

Event planning and execution

Content creation (thought leadership pieces, blog posts, etc.)

PR relies on ‘earned media’ → coverage from media outlets and strives for third party validation

Marketing

Promoting products and services to drive sales and revenue

Attracting and retaining customers, increasing brand awareness, and ultimately generating revenue

Methods

Market research

Product development

Pricing strategies

Promotional activities (advertising, sales promotion)

Customer relationship management (CRM)

Marketing focus on the entire customer journey, from awareness to purchase and beyond

Advertising → under the marketing umbrella

Promoting specific products or services through paid media channels

Creating awareness, generating interest, and ultimately driving sales

Methods

Developing advertising campaigns (TV, radio, print, online)

Placing ads in various media outlets

Measuring ad campaign effectiveness

Advertising is a paid form of communication, giving the advertiser control over the message and placement

'Mediatisation' and 'media logic'.

Mediatisation → media are not just tools for communication but also active agents that shape social practices, cultural norms, and even individual identities

Media logic → refers to the specific ways in which media operate and produce content

Including the conventions of news production, the use of visual language, the emphasis on certain narratives and framing, and the pressure to capture the audience’s attention

Understood as a set of rules and constraints that shape media content, influencing what is considered newsworthy, how stories are told, and what kind of information is prioritized

Mediatization is the broader process, while media logic is a specific component of that process

Need for new management strategies by big news producers (timing of messages and communication; diverting attention; media coordination; rewards and punishments of journalists

Not all media systems are the same

Market, political parallelism; professionalization of journalists; the role of government

In essence, mediatization describes the overall impact of media, while media logic explains the specific mechanisms and practices through which that impact is achieved

Global communication and dependency theory.

Global communication

The interconnectedness of societies through media and communication technologies, facilitating the flow of information and cultural exchange across borders

Dependency theory

A framework that examines how less developed countries (peripheral) are dependent on more developed countries (core) for economic and cultural resources, leading to unequal power dynamics and reinforcing inequalities

Cultural Imperialism

The idea that powerful nations exert influence over less powerful nations through cultural products, potentially undermining local cultures and promoting Western values

Cultural homogenization → the spread of media products from core countries can lead to a homogenization of cultures, where local traditions and identities are eroded or replaced by globalized cultural norms

Hegemony → dominance of one worldview, ideology, or culture over others (often through the media)

Homogeneity of content → global media tends to promote similar content/styles reducing cultural diversity

Media imperialism paradigm → powerful nations export media content that shapes and dominates other cultures

Electronic Colonialism theory (ECT) → control of developing countries through dominance of media and communication technologies

Media Flows

Dependency theory suggest that media content, technologies, and communication systems often flow from core to peripheral countries, potentially leading to the dominance of Western media narrative and the marginalization of local voices

Economic Dependence

Peripheral countries may rely on core countries for media infrastructure, technology, and even advertising revenue, creating economic dependencies and reinforcing power imbalances

Power structures

Dependency theory highlights the role of historical structural factors in shaping global communication, including the influence of trans

Modernization theory: communication and development.

The theory suggests that the free flow of information from developed to developing nations would facilitate modernization and development in the latter.

suggesting that developing nations can achieve modernization by adopting Western values and technologies, often through media exposure.

Media's role → modernization theory highlights the role of mass media in disseminating information about modernization, promoting new values, and fostering a desire for change

Framed as a counterpoint to communism during the cold war, emphasizing the benefits of capitalism and democracy

Dependency theory critiques modernization theory by highlighting the power imbalances inherent in the global flow of information. It argues that the "free flow" primarily benefits Western nations, leading to the dominance of Western perspectives and the marginalization of local cultures. Instead of fostering development, dependency theorists argue that this flow can reinforce economic and cultural dependency.

Criticisms of modernization theory

Ethnocentrism → critics argue that modernization theory is based on a Western model of development and does not adequately consider the unique historical, social, and cultural contexts of different nations

One-way Flow → criticized for assuming a one-way flow of information and influence from developed to developing countries, neglecting the potential for local knowledge and innovation

Oversimplification → the theory fails to account for the social, political, and economic factors that influence development

Examples of the theory in practice in:

Radio → in the mid-20th century, radio was seen as a powerful tool for disseminating information about agricultural techniques, health practices, and other development-related topics in rural areas

Media campaigns → development communication campaigns often utilize mass me

Differences and similarities between writing news for different sources (e.g. news organizations, public relations) and mediums (e.g. text, video, digital).

News organizations vs. public relations

Similarities

Both aim to inform audiences (though motives differ)

Require accuracy, clarity, and conciseness

Use news values (timeliness, relevance, human interest)

Follow structured formats (leads, quotes, context)

Differences

News organizations

Prioritize objectivity, balance, watchdog role

Stories written for public interest, sometimes critical of institutions

Journalistic ethics guide content (transparency, fairness)

Public relations (PR)

Prioritize positive image-building for clients/organizations

Content is persuasive/strategic, highlighting benefits, minimizing negatives

Serves institutional interests rather than neutral reportings

Mediums → Text, video, and digital

Similarities

Must be factually accurate, engaging, and audience focused

Use the inverted pyramid (important info first)

Incorporate quotes, visuals, or examples strengthen credibility

Differences

Text (Print/Online articles)

Emphasis on detail and depth

More space for background, analysis, and context

Written style tends to be formal and structured

Video (broadcast/online)

Focus on visual storytelling with images, sound, and brevity

Conversational, script-like language

Uses soundbites, live reporting, and visual cues to carry meaning

Digital (web, social media, mobile apps)

Interactive, multimedia-rich (links, graphics, embedded media)

Writing is shorter, snappy, SEO-friendly, and tailored to algorithms

Allows real-time updates and audience engagement (comments and shares)

Source matters → journalism = objectivity, PR = advocacy

Medium matters → print = depth, video = immediacy/visuals, digital = brevity + interactivity

Triangulation in social science research and its usefulness.

Triangulation in social science research involves using multiple data sets, multiple researchers, multiple theories to make your research more complete enhancing the validity and reliability of findings

Benefits

Increased validity and reliability → by using multiple approaches, researchers can cross-validate their findings, increasing the confidence in the results

Enhanced understanding → different data sources and methods can provide a more holistic and nuanced understanding of the research topic

Reduced bias → triangulation helps mitigate the limitations and biases associated with individual methods or researchers

Improved explanations → combining the qualitative and quantitative data can lead to more robust explanations and insights

Addressing complex phenomena → some social phenomena are too complex to be understood through a single method or perspective. Triangulation allows researchers to tackle these complexities effectively

Types of triangulation

Methodological triangulation → using different research methods (surveys, interviews, observations, etc.) to study the same phenomenon

Data Triangulation → utilizing multiple data sources (e.g. primary and secondary data, different types of qualitative data

Investigator Triangulation → employing multiple researchers to collect and analyze data, helping to reduce individual bias

Theoretical triangulation → applying different theoretical perspectives to interpret the same data

Descriptive vs inferential statistics: Describing, summarizing, and presenting data. How samples are used to draw conclusions about the general population.

Descriptive statistics

To describe and summarize data in a meaningful way

Calculates measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode), and measures of dispersion (range, variance, standard deviation), and visualizations like histograms and charts

Example → calculating the average age of students in a classroom or creating a bar graph to show the distribution of exam scores

Describes the specific set of data being analyzed

Inferential statistics

To draw conclusions about a population based on a sample

Uses statistical tests (T-tests, anova, regression analysis), confidence intervals, and hypothesis testing

Example → using a survey sample to estimate the average income of all residents in a city

Generalize findings from a sample to a larger population

How samples are used

Inferential statistics rely on the concept that a well chosen sample can be representative of the larger population

By analyzing the sample data, researchers can estimate population parameters and make inferences about the population as a whole, however there is always a degree of uncertainty

Descriptive statistics help us understand the data we have, while inferential statistics help us make informed guesses about data we don;t have

The historical evolution of mediated communication.

The historical evolution of mediated communication

A story of technological advancements transforming how humans communicate across time and space

Mediated communication → the process of exchanging information using some form of technology (not oral)

Early forms (pre-15th century)

Writing → the earliest form of mediated communication, allowing for the storage and transmission of information across distances and time

Manuscripts → the development of codices (book-like forms) allowed for the portability of written texts

Print era (15th-19th centuries)

Printing press (1440s) → Gutenberg's invention revolutionized the spread of information by enabling mass production of books, newspapers, and other printed materials

Newspapers → emerging in the 17th century, newspapers became a primary source of news, opinions, and advertising

Telecommunications (19th century)

Telegraph (1830s-1840s) → morse's invention allowed for rapid long distance communication using electronic signals

Telephone (1876) → Bell's invention enabled voice communication over long distances, further revolutionizing communication

Electronic media (20th century)

Radio (1920s) → Marconi's development of radio technology allowed for broadcasting of audio content to a wide audience

Television (1930s-1940s) → Farnsworth's early work on television technology brought visual media into homes

Digital Age (Late 20th and 21st centuries)

Internet → the development of the internet, including the World Wide Web, enabled instant global communication and information sharing

Mobile phones → the rise of mobile phones, especially smartphones, brought communication to individuals wherever they were

Social media → platforms like facebook, twitter, and others transformed how people interact and share information

Streaming services and on-demand media → platforms like netflix and s

The New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) and its legacy.

NWICO was a 1970s/80s movement advocating for a more equitable global information flow, particularly challenging the dominance of Western media in the developing role

Addressing imbalances → NWICO emerged from concerns about the perceived dominance of Western media and its impact on developing countries

Cultural imperialism → it critiqued the spread of Western cultural norms and values through media, arguing it led to cultural imperialism

Democratization of communication → NWICO sought to empower developing nations by giving them greater control over their own media and communication systems

Right to communicate → it championed the idea of a ‘right to communicate’ emphasizing the importance of access to information and the freedom to express oneself

The MacBride commission → UNESCO played a significant role, which produced a report outlining communication problems and NWICO’s goals

NWICO’S legacy

Continued relevance → while NWICO as a movement faded, its concerns about media ownership, representation, and digital divide remain relevant

Rise of alternative media → the debate fueled the growth of alternative media and citizen journalism, offering voices and perspectives not often found in mainstream media

Influence on policy → NWICO’s ideas influenced discussions about media regulation, access to information and the role of technology in development

Ongoing debate → the debate about a more equitable global information order continues, with ongoing discussions about the role of technology, the influence of social media, and the need for diverse voices and perspectives

Digital Divide → where some people have access to technology and information while others do not, echoes the concerns raised by NWICO about information and inequality

The globalization of the media (media globalization).

Media globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of media systems across national borders, driven by technological advancements and the rise of digital platforms

Content Flow → media globalization facilitates the rapid and widespread distribution of media products (movies, TV shows, music, news) across geographical boundaries, impacting cultural consumption and exchange

Technological advancements → the internet, social media, and other digital technologies have been instrumental in accelerating media globalization, enabling instant communication and content sharing on a global scale

Economic implications → media globalization has led to the rise of global media conglomerates and the expansion of media markets, influencing media ownership, production, and distribution

Social and political effects → the global flow of information can impact social movements, political discourse, and public opinion, with potential consequences for governance and civic engagement

Local vs. Global → the interplay between global and local media landscapes is complex with some arguing for cultural homogenization while others highlight the resilience and adaptation of local media and cultures

Challenges and concerns → media globalization also raises concerns about the digital divide, media imperialism, and the potential for manipulation or misinformation in the global information landscape

Examples of media globalization:

The global reach of American television shows like ‘friends’ or ‘the big bang theory’

The international success of talent competitions like ‘idols’ or ‘got talent’

The spread of online streaming services like Netflix, offering content from various countries to a global audience

The impact of available means of communication (oral, typographic, electronic/digital) on social and political relationships in different historical eras.

Oral communication (pre-writing and early societies)

Medium → spoken word, storytelling, memory, performance

Social impact

Knowledge passed through elders and community gatherings

Strong reliance on tradition and collective memory

Authority tied to those who could remember and speak persuasively

Political impact

Power often centralized in religious leaders, chiefs, or elders

Laws, customs, and myths reinforced orally → stability but limited expansion

Community cohesion depended on face-to-face communication

writing/print displaced oral authority in law, governance, and history

Oral culture persisted in speeches, sermons, and popular resistance

Typographic Communication (print culture, 15th-19th century)

Medium → printing press, books, newspapers, pamphlets

Social Impact

Spread of literacy and education → wider knowledge access

Standardization of language and knowledge

Strengthened public debate (coffeehouse, pamphlet wars)

People who could not read were limited and controlled by those that could

Political impact

Enabled reformation (Martin Luther) and revolutions (american and french)

Rise of nationalism (shared print languages_

Growth of bureaucracies and centralized states

Expansion of political participation through newspapers/public sphere

With the rise of TV/radio, print shifted toward depth (books, in-depth journalism while broadcast took immediacy)

Electronic & Digital Communication (20th-21st c.)

Medium → telegraph, telephone, radio, television, internet and social media

Social impact

Instant, global connectivity

Creation of a 'global village' (McLuhan)

Blurring of producer/consumer roles (citizen journalism and user-generated content)

New forms of identity and community (online networks)

Political impact

Mass media = powerful tool for propaganda, nation-building, and activism

Digital media enables both state s

The media and the portrayal of groups in society (gender, ethnicity, age, etc.).

The media plays a significant role in shaping societal perceptions of various groups through its portrayals which can perpetuate stereotypes and biases related to gender, ethnicity, age, and other factors

intersectionality!!!!

Gender

Femininity vs. masculinity → what media expects of us,

Ex. Women are often depicted in stereotypical roles (homemaking or caregivers) while men are frequently portrayed in professional or leadership positions

These portrayals can limit opportunities and reinforce harmful gender stereotypes

Ethnicity

Racial and ethnic minorities may be represented through negative stereotypes (criminality or poverty) or positive stereotypes (athleticism)

These representations can reinforce prejudice and discrimination

Micro and macro aggressions

Age

Older individuals are often underrepresented or portrayed inaccurately, with portrayals often focusing on negative stereotypes like frailty or dependence

Younger individuals can be presented as naive, innocent, etc. or even made to seem older

This can contribute to ageism and discrimination

Positive effects

Increased awareness → media can be a powerful tool for raising awareness about social issues and promoting understanding and empathy

Counter-sterotypes → media can challenge stereotypes and promote more inclusive and accurate representations of diverse groups

Positive impact on self esteem through representation → Positive, diverse, accurate media portrayals can boost the self-esteem and pride of individuals from marginalized groups

Negative Effects

Mental and physical health → media portrayals can negatively impact self-esteem, mental health, and body image particularly for individuals belonging to groups that are frequently stereotyped

Social issues → media can contribute to social issues such as sexism, discrimination, and harassment by perpetuating harmfu

Vernacular languages, 'imagined communities', the rise of nationalism (Anderson).

Benedict Anderson Theory

Imagined communities → nations are not based on face-to-face interactions but on a shared sense of belonging and common identity imagined by their members

Vernacular Languages → the standardization and dissemination of vernacular languages though print media played a crucial role in fostering national consciousness

Print capitalism → the rise of printing technology and the mass production of books and newspapers in vernacular languages facilitated the spread of national narratives and the creation of a reading public

Nationalism’s role and rising → Anderson suggests that nationalism emerged as a response to the decline of traditional sources of social cohesion, like religion and dynastic rule, and the rise of new forms of social organization

Highlights the power of language, media, and shared narratives in shaping collective identities and fostering a sense of national belonging

Limited and sovereign → nations are imagined as inherently limited (with defined borders) and sovereign (autonomous and self-governing)

Beyond face-to-face → the imagined community transcends geographical limitations and the limitations of direct experience. Individuals can feel a sense of connection with others they will never meet, simply by virtue of belonging to the same nation

The origins of public broadcasting and contemporary issues concerning it.

Public broadcasting, originating from a desire to offer non-commercial, educational, and diverse programming. Initially envisioned as a vital public service

Origins

Early radio → interest in educational broadcasting emerged in the 1920s and the 1930s, with universities and educational institutions using radio for distance learning

Federal Communications Commission (FCC) → the FCC allocated radio frequencies for non-commercial broadcasting in 1938

Carnegie Commission (1967) → the carnegie commission on educational television recommended the creation of the corporation for public broadcasting (CPB)

Public broadcasting act of 1987 → this act established the CPB to support the development of local and national public television and radio programming

Early Funding → the ford foundation played a significant role in funding early public television stations and networks

Contemporary Issues

Funding → public broadcasting relies on a mix of federal, state, and local government funding, as well as individual donations and corporate underwriting. Lol Trump just shut the CPB on August 1st

The annual appropriations process for federal funding creates uncertainty and can lead to budget cuts, impacting programming and potentially leading to station closures

Relevance in the digital age → Public broadcasting faces competition from a multitude of online platforms and streaming services, requiring adaption to changing audience consumption habits

Maintaining public trust → public broadcasting must address concerns about perceived bias, relevance, and accessibility to maintain its status as a trusted source of information

Diversity and inclusion → ensuring diverse programming that reflects the broad range of American communities remains a key challenge

Local Journalism → public media stations play a crucial role in local journalism, but fac

The changing role of the news media in society.

The role of news media in society is constantly evolving, particularly due to the rise of new media technologies and platforms

Traditionally → news media served as a gatekeeper, filtering information and shaping public opinion, Gatekeeping (traditional) → Factors affecting whose voices and what messages get in the news

Now → the internet and social media have democratized information dissemination, allowing individuals to become content creators and distributors, fragmentation of audiences, people turning to unreliable sources of news (influencers, podcasts, celebrity talk shows), SPEED OF NEWS, Changing journalistic trends for sourcing (now journalists are the sources, they are citing each other)

Key shifts in news consumption and production

Increased accessibility and speed → new media platforms provide news 24/7, often in real-time, making it more accessible and immediate than ever before

User-generated content → social media empowers individuals to share news and engage in discussions, blurring the lines between consumers and producers of information

Personalized news feeds → algorithms on social media platforms curate content based on user preferences, potentially leading to echo chambers and limiting exposure to diverse perspectives

Challenges to traditional journalism → traditional news outlets face declining advertising revenue, reduced readership, and increased competition from online sources, leading to job losses and organizational restructuring

Erosion of trust → the spread of misinformation and disinformation on social media platforms has eroded public trust in traditional news organizations, making it more difficult for them to maintain their credibility

The ongoing importance of traditional media

Verification and fact-checking → traditional news organizations play a crucial role in verifying information

News values (Galtung and Ruge) - how the relative importance of news stories is determined.

News values (Galtung and Ruge) - how the relative importance of news stories is determined.

Gatlung and Ruge news values → journalists and editors use these criteria (often unconsciously) to decide which events become news and how prominently they are covered

Frequency → events that happen quickly and fit media deadlines are more likely to be reported

Threshold – The bigger/more extreme the event, the more likely it is newsworthy.

Unambiguity – Clear, simple events are easier to report than complex, ambiguous ones

Meaningfulness – Events relevant to the audience’s culture, geography, or interests are prioritized.

Consonance – Events that fit media’s expectations or stereotypes (what they expect to happen)

Unexpectedness – The more surprising/unusual the event, the more newsworthy.

Continuity – Once an event is in the news, it tends to stay there (follow-up stories).

Composition – News must balance stories; editors select items to create a varied mix.

Reference to Elite Nations – Events in powerful nations are more newsworthy.

Reference to Elite People – Involvement of famous/powerful individuals increases news value.

Reference to Persons – Stories about individuals (personalization) attract more attention than abstract issues.

Negativity – Bad news (conflict, disaster, crime) is more likely to be reported than positive news.

Media violence and audiences.

Media violence can cause fear imitation, desensitization, and altered worldviews. Its impacts depend on age, personality, context, and social factors.

Effects of media violence

Fear

Most immediate effect, can cause emotional disturbance

Strong correlation between hours viewed and negative symptoms

Children's responses change with age (from appearance-based to abstract dangers)

Modeling

Viewers may imitate behaviors seen in media

Requires attention + memory encoding

Disinhibition → lowers resistance to violent behavior

Sensitization

Opposite of modeling → strong negative reactions to violence

Trauma may lead to rejection of violence

Desensitization

Regular exposure reduces emotional response

Violence becomes normalized, less shocking

Cultivation

Heavy TV exposure shapes perception of reality

Viewers may believe the world is more violent that it actually is

Catharsis

Experiencing violence through art/media provides emotional release

Interactive factors

Model attributes → imitation increases with strong identification

Reinforcement → violence rewarded in media = more imitation

Perceived Reality → violence seems more impactful if seen as 'real'

Personality → violent personalities are more affected

Arousal → physiological excitement heightens violent reactions

Age & Gender → children (8-12) are most impressionable; teens differentiate reality much better

Context → violence in humor or positive contexts can reinforce acceptance

Who watches and Why?

Boys → (preadolescents/adolescents): watch to show fearlessness, strength

Girls → watch to display fear/need (fits dating/gender role scripts)

Individual differences

Low empathy → more attraction to violent media

High sensation seeking → more preference for violent content

High psychoticism → more acceptance of violence as problem solving

Research

Most studies are on short term ef

Portrayals of human sexuality in the media, and changes over time (access, explicitness, focus, effects).

Effects of viewing sex in the media

Basic effect → arousal

Sexual content energizes/intensifies behavior

Classical conditioning links arousal with repeated exposure

Question? Is arousal tied to explicitness?

Attitudinal and value effects

Sexual content in news → how explicit should coverage be?

Premarital sex → often normalized in adult programming

Extramarital sex → shown far more often than marital sex

STD and birth control → underrepresented compared to portrayals of casual sex

Broader attitudinal effects

Desensitization toward sexual content

Shifts in values and attitudes toward sexuality

Encourages trivialization of serious sexual issues

Can reinforce negative attitudes toward women

Behavioral effects

Disinhibition → loosening of social / sexual restraints

Sex crimes → potential links debated

Catharsis → does media sex relieve urges?

Prevailing tone factors → seriousness, artistic intent, role in plot, viewing context, cultural norms, audience expectations

Sexual Violence

Concern lies in how sex and violence appear together

Issues

Erotica potentially stimulating aggression

Women often portrayed as aroused by violence

Sexual violence in media affects men differently, depending on individual traits

Media coverage of sexual crimes

Journalism can reinforce rape myths through bias

Problems include

Gender bias in reporters and language

Framing crimes as 'unfulfilled needs'

Two common rape narratives

The vamp (woman as seductress)

The virgin (woman as innocent victim)

Evolution of media portrayals

Past → historically media representations of sexuality were often limited, featuring predominantly heterosexual relationships and focusing on romantic or married couples. Explicitness was generally low, with sex often implied rather than shown directly

Present → in recent decades there has been a notable shift towards more expl

Technological (media) convergence and society.

Media convergence is the merging of different media industries into one box or channel which significantly impacts society by changing how we consume information, interact with each other, and even how media is produced

Media convergence in the digital era refers to the merging of different forms of media, such as print, audio, and video into a single platform

Digitization is a process converting contents which were previously expressed in different forms into numbers

In the analog model, video, audio, and text are transmitted as continual signals and each of these three content forms differs from the other

With digitization, video, audio, and text are, on the hand are codified in the same material (numerical data) that allows information to be transferred and stored independently of the original content type

Positive impacts

Increased access to information → media convergence allows for greater access to a wider range of media content across various platforms

Simplified production → user-generated content is more accessible, democratizing media creation and distribution

Enhanced interaction → platforms like social media foster interaction and engagement with media content

New forms of content → convergence has spurred the creation of new media formats like interactive storytelling and personalized news feeds

Negative Impacts

spread of misinformation → the ease of content creation and sharing can also facilitate the rapid spread of fake news and misinformation

Increased surveillance → convergence raises concerns about data privacy and increased surveillance by governments and corporations

Copyright issues → digital platforms have made it easier to copy and distribute copyrighted material, leading to challenge for content creators

Disruption of traditional media → the rise of online media has negatively impacted traditi

The influence of social media on the principles and practices of public relations in comparison to the previous period dominated by classic, analogue media.

Traditional PR (pre-social media)

Controlled media → PR professionals primarily relied on press releases and controlled media channels like newspapers, magazines, and television to disseminate information

One-way communication → information flowed from the organization to the public, with limited opportunities for direct feedback or interaction

Limited reach and audience segmentation→ reaching specific demographics and target audiences was more challenging and often involved significant media buying or strategic relationships

Emphasis on media relations → building relationships with journalists and media outlets was crucial for securing coverage

Delayed feedback → feedback mechanisms were limited and often lagged behind the initial communication

Social media PR era

Dynamic and interactive → social media platforms allow for real time engagement, two way communication, and interactive content formats (polls, live Q&A)

Direct audience engagement → brands can directly connect with and build relationships with their audience, fostering a sense of community

Wider reach and targeted messaging → social media platforms offer a vast audience reach and allow for highly targeted advertising and content delivery

Emphasis on content marketing → PR professionals now develop and share engaging content (videos, blog posts, infographics) to attract and retain audiences

Real time crisis management → social media enables rapid response to crises, allowing organizations to address concerns and manage their reputation proactively

Data - driven insights → social media analytics provide valuable insights into audience behavior, preferences, and engagement, enabling more effective targeting and communication

Transparency and authenticity → consumers increasingly demand transparency and authenticity from brands, and social media makes it easier

Four models of PR (Grunig and Hunt, 1984) in historical perspective.

Press agentry (late 1800s - early 1900s)

Goal → to gain attention and publicity at any cost

One-way communication from organization to → public

Uses hype, exaggeration, stunts, and propaganda, the truth is not essential

Example → P.T. Barnum's circus promotions

Historical context → industrial expansion, little regulation of communication ethics

Public information model (early 1900s - 1920s)

Goal → to Disseminate truthful, factual information

One way communication focused on accuracy

Journalistic approach → press releases, fact sheets

Transparency emphasized (though still controlled by the organization)

Example → Ivy Lee's PR for railroads and corporations

Historical context → progressive era reforms, demand for honesty in public communication

Two-way asymmetrical model (1920s- mid 20th. century)

Goal → to persuade publics to accept organization’s viewpoint

Two-way communication, but imbalance! (research used to influence, not to listen equally)

Employs surveys, opinion polls, psychology to craft persuasive messages

Focus on manipulation rather than mutual understanding

Example → Edward Bernays’ campaigns ‘torches of freedom’ for women smoking

Historical context → rise of social sciences and mass persuasion techniques

Two way symmetrical model (1960s onward, ideal model)

Goal → mutual understanding and benefit between organization and publics

Two-way balanced communication, dialogue based

Negotiation, conflict resolution, building long term trust

Organization adapts as much as the public does

Modern CSR (corporate social responsibility) & stakeholder engagement

Historical context → post-wwII democracy, civil rights movements, rise of corporate accountability

The McDonaldization of society as an organizational trend and its consequences (Ritzer).

Core principles of McDonalization

Efficiency → optimizing every step of a process to minimize time and effort, often prioritizing speed over quality or individuality

Calculability → focusing on quantifiable results and measurable outcomes, often at the expense of qualitative aspects

Predictability → ensuring consistent and standardized experiences, products, and services across different locations and times

Control → using technology and strict procedures to minimize human error and variability, often leading to a loss of autonomy for workers and consumers

Positive effects of Mcdonalization

Increased efficiency and convenience → Mcdonalization can lead to faster service, easier access to goods and services, and reduced costs

Standardized products and experiences → consumers can rely on consistent quality and expectations, regardless of location

Negative effects of McDonalization

Homogenization and loss of diversity → local cultures and unique experiences are replaced by standardized offerings, leading to a more uniform and less interesting world

Dehumanization → individuals may feel like cogs in a machine, losing their individuality and creativity as they adapt to highly controlled and predictable environments

Irrationalities of rationality → while aiming for efficiency, McDonaldization can create inefficiencies, such as long lines at fast food restaurants or excessive focus on speed over quality

Decline in quality → the emphasis on speed and quantity can lead to a decline in the quality of products and services

Environmental Impact → the mass production and consumption patterns associated with McDonaldization can contribute to environmental problems

Examples of Mcdonalization

Fast food restaurants → (obvious) with their focus on efficiency, predictability, and standardized products

Online shopping → shein, temu, aliex

In-group-out-group dynamics, and how to reduce the effects.

Identification (us vs. them dynamics) → leads to increased conflict and decreased cooperation

In group

Sense of belonging, shared identity, membership

Individuals favor their own group

Out groups

Groups we do not identify with

Help explains negative stereotypes

Views others as outsiders

Typically underestimated, stereotypes, or even actively disliked

Mitigating Negative effects

Promote empathy and perspective-taking → encourage individuals to understand and appreciate the experiences and viewpoints of those outside their group

Foster shared goals and cooperation → introduce tasks or projects that require collaboration between in-group and out-group members, emphasizing interdependence and shared success

Create inclusive environments → actively recruit and support diverse team members, ensuring that everyone has a voice and equal opportunities

Challenge stereotypes and biases → raise awareness about the potential for bias and encourage critical thinking about one’s own perceptions

Establish clear communication channels → ensure that all team members have access to information and opportunities to express their opinions

Encourage constructive feedback and conflict resolution → develop mechanisms for addressing disagreements and resolving conflicts in a fair and respectful manner

Recognize and reward inclusive behavior → highlight and celebrate instances where individuals actively work to bridge the gap between in-groups and out-groups

Advertising and its influence on the basic elements of needs, wants and demands.

Advertising → under the marketing umbrella

Promoting specific products or services through paid media channels

Creating awareness, generating interest, and ultimately driving sales

Methods

Developing advertising campaigns (TV, radio, print, online)

Placing ads in various media outlets

Measuring ad campaign effectiveness

Advertising is a paid form of communication, giving the advertiser control over the message and placement

Needs

Advertising can make people aware of their needs or highlight how a product or a service can fulfill a basic need

Example → an advertisement might emphasize the safety features of a car, making consumers aware of their need for security

Wants

Advertising plays a crucial role in shaping wants by associating products with positive emotions, lifestyles, or social status

It can create a desire for things that are not essential for survival but are perceived as desirable or aspirational

Demands

Advertising can convert wants into demand by creating a sense of urgency, scarcity, or exclusivity

By highlighting limited-time offers, special promotions, or exclusive product launches, advertising can encourage immediate purchase and turn a want into a demand

Examples

Fashion → advertising can highlight the latest trends and styles, transforming the desire for fashionable clothes into a demand for specific items

Technology → advertising can showcase the latest features of a smartphone, creating a desire for the newest model, and potentially leading to a purchase

Travel → advertising can evoke a sense of adventure and exploration, transforming the desire to travel into a demand for vacation packages and experiences

The "Out of Africa" theory and its impact on the global spread of language.

The out-of-Africa (Monogenesis) theory

The theory that we are all descended from a hominid tribe in the Rift Valley of Africa about 100-150,000 years ago perhaps earlier

About 50-70,000 years ago the tribe began to disperse, taking with them a language system (not a language) that diversified

This is referred to as a Proto-World, the real mother tongue, this is then diversified into the language families that lie behind today’s languages

Impact on the global spread of language

Single origin of language capacity → if humans share a common African origin, then the biological capacity for language also emerged in Africa before dispersal

Suggests that all human languages descend from a shared proto-language

Migration and language diversification

As humans migrated into different regions, groups became isolated, leading to the divergence of languages

Geographic separation + cultural evolution produced today;s thousands of distinct languages

Phonemic diversity evidence

Linguists argue that phonemic diversity (the number of sounds in a language) is highest in Africa and decreases with distance from Africa

This mirrors genetic diversity patterns → and supports the out of africa spread model

Global language families

Major language families (Indo-European, Bantu, Sino-Tibetan) can be seen as branches of diversification that ultimately trace back to early migrations

Cultural transmission

Language evolved alongside tools, rituals, and social structures

The global spread of humans meant not just genes but also communication systems traveled and adapted

Deviance as an important part of social change.

Deviance plays a crucial role in social change by challenging existing norms and prompting societal reevaluation.

Deviance as a catalyst for change

Challenging norms → deviant acts, whether individual or collective, can highlight injustices and inequalities embedded in social structures

Promoting reassessment → by pushing boundaries, deviance forces society to confront its own values and beliefs, potentially leading to a reevaluation of what is considered acceptable or unacceptable

Social movements → deviance is often central to social movements, as individuals and groups challenge existing power structures and advocate for change through actions that may be considered deviant by the mainstream

Examples of social change

Civil rights movement → nonviolent civil disobedience, like sit-ins and marches, challenged segregation laws and racial inequality

LGBTQ+ rights movement → pride parades and other forms of public expression challenged heteronormative norms and promoted LGBTQ+ rights

Feminist movement → challenged patriarchal norms and advocated for gender equality through various forms of protest and activism

Durkheim's Functionalist perspective

Even though deviance can be disruptive, some sociologists argue that it has a functional role in society

Boundary maintenance → deviance clarifies the boundaries of acceptable behavior by highlighting what is considered deviant

Social solidarity → responding to deviance can strengthen social solidarity as people come together to condemn or address the deviant act

Social change → Durkheim also recognized that deviance can be a catalyst for social change, as it can expose weaknesses in social structures and institutions

Important Factors

Not all deviance is positive → while deviance can be a catalyst for positive change, some forms of deviance, such as crime and violence can be ha

Approaches to writing news stories: inverted pyramid, breaking news, feature stories, etc.

Inverted Pyramid

Structure: Most important facts first (who, what, when, where, why, how), followed by supporting details, then background.

Purpose: Ensures readers get the key information quickly; editors can cut from the bottom without losing essentials.

Use: Hard news, breaking events, press releases.

Breaking News stories

Structure: Fast, immediate updates, often written under time pressure.

Characteristics: Short, concise, fact-based. May be updated repeatedly as new information emerges. Prioritizes speed over depth.

Use: Emergencies, disasters, political events, live coverage.

Feature Stories

Order

Anecdote

Theme

Problem / issue/ tension / back ground / statistics

Solutions

Closing anecdote

Characteristics → more descriptive, human centered, analytical

Provides depth, context, background, and personal stories

Often longer than news reports

Uses → profiles, trend pieces, human interest stories, investigative journalism

Other Approaches

Chronological/Narrative: Tells events in the order they happened; often used in features.

Q&A Format: Direct interview-style structure, useful for clarity and personality-driven pieces.

Explanatory/Analytical: Breaks down complex issues into accessible explanations; often used in digital/long-form journalism.

Multimedia/Digital Newswriting: Combines text with visuals, video, hyperlinks, and interactive elements; often structured for scannability and SEO.