ap unit 7

Frontier Thesis

Frederick Jackson Turner’s 1893 argument that American democracy was formed by the frontier; the closing of the frontier (census of 1890) worried Americans about the loss of a “safety valve.”

Dawes Severalty Act (1887)

Federal law that broke up tribal lands and allotted parcels to individual Native Americans (160 acres per family head). Aimed at assimilation; “surplus” lands sold to settlers. It weakened tribal sovereignty.

Helen Hunt Jackson / A Century of Dishonor

Critic of the federal government’s treatment of Native Americans. In A Century of Dishonor (1881), she exposed broken treaties and injustices.

Ghost Dance Movement & Wounded Knee Massacre (1890)

A spiritual movement among Plains tribes pushing for renewal. The U.S. army suppressed it at Wounded Knee, killing ~200 Native Americans — marked the end of organized Plains Indian resistance.

Turner’s Frontier & “Closing”

1890 census declared no true frontier line remained — many feared America would lose its edge, leading to a turn toward overseas expansion.

Populist / People’s Party

Political party formed in 1892 representing farmers. Called for free silver, government control of railroads, subtreasury plan, graduated income tax. Reflected agrarian discontent in Chapter 26.

Free Silver / Bimetallism

Monetary policy proposing both gold and silver as currency base (16:1 ratio). Supported by farmers to inflate debt burden; William Jennings Bryan championed it.

Cross of Gold Speech (1896)

Famous speech by William Jennings Bryan at the Democratic Convention advocating bimetallism, criticizing “you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold.”

McKinley Tariff (1890)

High protective tariff that raised rates to ~50%. Hurt farmers by increasing cost of goods and reducing demand for exports.

Subtreasury / Sub-Treasury Plan

Populist proposal: federally funded warehouses for crops so farmers could store and get low-interest loans until market conditions improved.

Silver Purchase Act (1890)

Law requiring U.S. Treasury to buy silver and issue paper currency backed by it. A compromise measure that pleased some silverites but failed to satisfy demand for full bimetallism.

Spanish–American War (1898)

Conflict between U.S. and Spain, partly over Cuba. The U.S. defeated Spain, leading to acquisitions of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.

Open Door Policy / Notes

John Hay’s diplomatic initiative (1899–1900) calling for equal trading rights in China and respect for Chinese territorial integrity (i.e. no partitioning).

Rough Riders

Volunteer cavalry unit led by Theodore Roosevelt during the Spanish–American War. Famous for charge up San Juan Hill in Cuba.

“Big Stick” Diplomacy

Roosevelt’s foreign policy approach: diplomacy backed by military strength. Motto: “Speak softly, and carry a big stick.”

Roosevelt Corollary

1904 extension of the Monroe Doctrine: U.S. claimed the right to intervene in Latin American nations to maintain stability and keep out European powers.

Hay–Pauncefote Treaty (1901)

Treaty between U.S. and Britain that allowed the U.S. to build the Panama Canal without British involvement.

Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty

Treaty (1903) between U.S. and independent Panama, giving U.S. control over a Canal Zone ~10 miles wide, with rights to build and manage the canal.

Insular Cases

Supreme Court rulings (~1901) that determined the U.S. Constitution did not fully apply to territories (“unincorporated territories”) such as Puerto Rico.

Philippine–American War (1899–1902)

Conflict between U.S. and Filipino insurgents (led by Aguinaldo) after the U.S. annexed the Philippines rather than granting independence. Guerrilla warfare, harsh retaliation.

Anti-Imperialist League

Group founded in 1898 opposing U.S. expansion. Members included Mark Twain, Andrew Carnegie, William James. Argued imperialism betrayed American ideals.

“Splendid Little War”

John Hay’s description of the Spanish–American War, emphasizing its brevity and nominal cost/benefit to the U.S.

Spheres of Influence (China)

Regions in China where certain foreign powers had exclusive trading rights or control. The Open Door aimed to prevent exclusive control.

Sphere of Influence

(in general) area in which one country has power over others’ trade or politics without formal authority.

Coaling Stations / Overseas Bases

Naval stations abroad (e.g. Guam, Samoa, Pearl Harbor) needed for refueling and projecting power — critical to Mahan’s model.

Social Darwinism & “Survival of the Fittest”

Idea that strongest nations/races naturally dominate weaker ones. Used to justify imperialism, racism, and economic competition.

Missionary / Moral Diplomacy

The idea that the U.S. had a moral duty to spread democracy, Christianity, and “civilization” abroad (as part of imperial justification).

Annexation of Hawaii (1898)

Hawaii was annexed by the U.S. under McKinley. White sugar planters had staged an overthrow of Queen Liliʻuokalani in 1893, which Cleveland had opposed.

Venezuelan Boundary Dispute (1895) & Olney Note

Conflict between Britain & Venezuela over Guiana border. Richard Olney sent a forceful note invoking the Monroe Doctrine and U.S. hemispheric dominance.

Open Door in China & Boxer Rebellion

Boxer Rebellion (1900) = anti-foreigner uprising in China. The U.S. joined international forces to suppress it to protect Open Door principles.

Dollar Diplomacy

Under President Taft (after Roosevelt), using U.S. economic investment to influence Latin American politics instead of direct military intervention.

Panama Canal

Engineering marvel connecting Atlantic and Pacific. U.S. supported Panama’s secession from Colombia, then built and controlled the canal zone.