Biology Clep

What is the key limiting factor on cell size?

The size of a cell is limited by the ratio of its surface area to volume.

A cell will only remain stable if…

…the surface area of the plasma membrane maintains a balance with the volume of the cytoplasm.

The salivary gland…

…secretes saliva which enters the digestive tract and aids the digestive process.

Gregor Medel

Studied the relationships between traits expressed in parents and offspring and the genes that caused the traits to be expressed.

In order to become an established part of an island ecosystem there must be…

…a populations large enough to ensure successful reproduction, a food source, a suitable habitat, and a source of moisture.

Lymphocytes

Are cells involved in immunity and are produced in bone marrow as stem cells.

B Cells

Produce antibodies into the bloodstream that find and attach themselves to foreign antigens (toxins, bacteria).

T Cells

Some patrol the blood for antigens, but are also equipped to destroy antigens. They may regulate immune responses as well.

Mass extinctions promote diversification…

…because ecological niches open up, making conditions favorable for the establishment of new, diverse species.

Common elements found in proteins are

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen

What phylum are snakes in?

Chordata

Cellular Respiration

Is the process that releases energy for use by the cell.

A hydrogen bond

Is weaker than ionic, covalent, disulfide, or double bonds.

A hydrogen bond involves

the attraction of atoms of different polarity and can be easily broken.

Ionic bonds involve

the transfer of electrons.

Covalent bonds

share electrons.

Chimpanzees

Are more closely related to Homo Sapiens than to other apes, but Homo Sapiens did not evolve from chimpanzees.

About five million years ago…

…the lineage that led to the modern Homo Sapiens diverged from the lineage that led to the modern chimpanzee.

The evolution leading to Homo Sapiens…

Is more like branching out of a tree with dead ends and new branches appearing simultaneously than like steps on a ladder.

Early hominids…

Stood upright before there was an increase in brain size.

The large brain and upright posture

of Homo Sapiens did not evolve together.

Most fossils of Hominids

are from continents other than North America.

The stomach secretes

digestive enzymes, hydrochloric acid, and gastric juices which aid in digestion. The mucous secreted by the stomach protects the stomach lining from the acids and juices.

Algae and Protozoa belong to the kingdom

Protista

Plants and animals obtain usable nitrogen

through nitrogen fixing bacteria and lighting.

When the water concentration inside and outside the cell is equal,

it is said to be in an isotonic state.

Isotonic Conditions

are produced when water passes through the cell membrane by osmosis from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration, to equalize water concentration.

The effect of a substrate concentration on the initial reaction rate in the presence of a limited amount of enzyme…

will increase the reaction rate as the concentration of substrate is increased until all the enzymes are used, then the reaction rate will level off.

An enzyme

Is a special protein that acts as a catalyst for organic reactions.

A catalyst

is a substance that changes the speed of a reaction without being affected itself.

Kingdom Protista

Contain one celled eukaryotes such as algae and protozoa.

Kingdom Animalia

contain organisms that are multicellular eukaryotes including vertebrates and invertebrates.

Kingdom Fungi

contains organisms that are multicellular eukaryotes including molds and mushrooms.

Kingdom Plantae

contains multicellular photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms including gymnosperms and angiosperms.

Cellular Metabolism

Energy transformations that occur as chemicals are broken down or synthesized within the cell.

Catabolism

breaking down

Anabolism

synthesis

Hydrolysis

a reaction that adds water to another compound. (2 hydrogens, 1 oxygen).

Chlorophyll

must be present for photosynthesis to occur, it is not used up in the process.

Chlorophyll has the ability to

absorb a photon of light and is found in the grana of the chloroplast.

Electron Transfer System (ETS)

produces the most ATP molecules, yielding 34 ATPs per glucose molecule.

The products of the Krebs cycle

are easily converted to ATP, but the main energy products of the Krebs cycle liberate electrons then used in the electron transfer reactions.

Photolysis is a reaction of photosynthesis where

chlorophyll pigments absorb photons of light, leaving the chlorophyll in a higher energy (excited) state, these then supply energy to reactions that produce ATP from ADP and Pi.

Pi

Inorganic phosphate

A mutation

is an accidental change of the DNA sequence of the gene that can result in creating a change of trait that is not found in the parent.

Differential reproduction

proposes that those individuals within a population that are most adapted to the environment are also the most likely individuals to produce viable offspring.

The Hardy-Weinberg Law of Equilibrium

states that where random mating is occurring within a population that is in equilibrium with its environment, the gene frequencies and genotype ratios will remain constant from generation to generation. It is a mathematical formula that shows why recessive genes do not disappear over time from a population.

Allopatric speciation

occurs when two populations are geographically isolated from each other. Over time this results in the production of two separate species.

Gene Migration occurs when

an individual from an adjacent population of the same species immigrates and breeds with a member of a previously locally isolated group, resulting in a change in the gene pool.

The primary role of DNA in the cell

is the control of protein synthesis. Genetic traits are expressed and specialization of cells occur as a result of the combination of proteins produced by the DNA of a cell.

DNA replication

allows for the genetic code to be preserved in future generations of cells.

Genetic imprinting

is when expression of genetic traits is determined by weather the trait is inherited from the mother or the father.

Genetic maintenance

the preservation of the integrity of genetic information from one generation to another.

Genetic screening

the systematic search for individuals with a specific genotype in a delineated population.

In DNA Guanine pairs with

Cytosine

In DNA Thymine pairs with

Adenine

Interphase

is the period when the cell is active in carrying on the function it was designed to perform within the organism. Cells spend much more time in interphase than in cell division.

Lysosomes

are membrane-bound organelles that contain digestive enzymes that digest dead or unused material within the cell or materials absorbed by the cell for use.

Free ribosomes

where protein synthesis occurs. They float unattached in the cytoplasm. They contain RNA that is specific to their function in protein formation.

DNA produces particular genetic traits through

Protein synthesis

Endocytic vesicles

are formed when the plasma membrane of a cell encloses a molecule outside the membrane, then releases a membrane bound sack containing the desired molecule into the cytoplasm. This process allows the cell to absorb molecules that are larger in size than would be able to pass through the cell membrane.

The nucleus

contains the chromosomes and is the site of reproduction through mitosis and meiosis.

Centrioles

are tubes constructed of a geometrical arrangement of microtubules in a pinwheel shape. Their function includes the formation of new microtubules, but is primarily to form the structural skeleton around which cells split during mitosis and meiosis.

Ribonucleic acid

is a molecule that stores information for protein synthesis and genetic coding.

Cellulose, starch, lipid, and sugar molecules

all store energy within their chemical bonds.

The cell membrane (plasma membrane)

engages in both passive and active transport.

Aggregate fruit

is a compound fruit that develops from many ovaries of a single flower fusing together (raspberry).

Multiple fruit

is a compound fruit that forms from several ovaries of separate flowers that fuse together during ripening (strawberry, or pineapple).

Simple fruits

fruits that develop from a single ripened ovary (apple, olive, acorn, cucumber).

Cuticle

Covers and protects the leaf.

Stem tissues include:

vascular tissue, including both xylem and phloem, and sieve plates existing between cells of the stem.

A prosthetic group

is an ion that binds to an enzyme making it more able to catalyze a reaction.

Prosthetic groups

may be ions or non-protein molecules, they are similar to cofactors, but differ in that they are tightly attached by covalent bonds to the enzyme, rather than being separate atoms or molecules.

An inhibitor

attaches to an enzyme and blocks the enzyme reaction rather than enhancing it, like a prosthetic group would.

Phloem tissue

is made of stacked cells connected by sieve plates that allow nutrients to pass from cell to cell. They transport food made in the leaves (by photosynthesis) to the rest of the plant).

Xylem tissue

transfers water and does not require sieve plates to allow nutrients through.

Meristem tissue

is found in the root cap and is responsible for quick growth in the roots.

Internodal tissue

is found on the stem between nodes.

Ectoderm tissue

is the outermost of the three main layers of an embryo.

Characteristics of water valuable to living organisms:

transparency, polarity, high specific heat, and density (lower density when solid than when liquid.).

Water has a pH of

approximately 7, making it neither basic (under 7) nor alkaline (over 7).

Carrying capacity

is the number of organisms that can be supported within a particular ecosystem.

Natality

refers to the birthrate of a population.

Population includes

the number of organisms in a given community, can be above or below the carrying capacity.

The community

is comprised of all the organisms that interact within a given ecosystem whether or not it is at carrying capacity.

The biosphere

includes all living and nonliving components of the Earth to support living things.

Spiracles

respiratory organs within insects

Most chemical pollutants accidentally ingested by humans

are filtered by the liver, mixed with broken down pigments in the bile, then bile is secreted into the small intestine, proceeds to the large intestine, and is expelled in the feces.

Gametogenesis

the process of forming eggs and sperm cells in the reproductive organs.

Gametocide

the destruction of gametes, (sex cells such as sperm and eggs).

Germ layers

The cells of a developing embryo (at the gastrula stage) differentiate into layers, that will later develop into different tissues and organs, including the mesoderm, ectoderm, and endoderm.

Mesoderm

Between the endoderm and ectoderm, layer that will eventually form the muscles, and organs of the skeletal, circulatory, respiratory, reproductive, and excretory systems.

Endoderm

Layer that will become the gut lining as well as some accessory structures.

Ectoderm

Layer that will become the skin, some endocrine glands, and the nervous system.

Morula

the solid mass of cells resulting from the cleavage of the ovum before the formation of a blastula.

Blastula

develops from the morula as a thin layer of cells surrounding an internal cavity.

Circadian rhythms

Internally generated patterns of body functions, including hormonal signals, sleep, blood pressure, and temperature regulation, which have approximately a 24-hour cycle and occur even in the absence of normal cues about whether it is day or night. An organisms daily repeated behavior such as wake and sleep cycles that function according to its internal clock.

Altruism

is a social behavior of an organism that is beneficial to the group at the individual's expense.

Fixed Action Pattern (FAP)

a type of innate behavior (instinct.) The FAP is a preprogrammed response to a particular stimulus (known as a releaser stimulus). FAP's include courtship behaviors and feeding of young. These are not learned behaviors, they are automatically performed without any prior experience.

Habituation

occurs when an individual learns not to respond to a particular stimulus, for instance when a stimulus is repeated many times without consequence.