motivation(better version)

Question

Answer

What is the definition of 'motivation' in psychology?

It is the force that moves people to behave, think, and feel the way they do, characterized as being energized, directed, and sustained.

According to evolutionary accounts of motivation, what is an 'instinct'?

An instinct is an innate, unlearned biological pattern of behaviour that is assumed to be universal throughout a species.

What environmental factor typically sets an instinct in motion?

A sign stimulus, which is something in the environment that turns on a fixed pattern of behaviour.

In the context of motivation, what is a 'drive'?

A drive is an aroused state of tension that occurs because of a physiological need.

How is a 'need' different from a 'drive'?

A need is a physiological deprivation that energizes a drive, whereas a drive is the psychological state of tension.

What is the central goal of Drive Reduction Theory?

The goal is homeostasis, which is the body's tendency to maintain an equilibrium or a steady state.

What is a major criticism of Drive Reduction Theory?

It does not explain behaviours that increase rather than reduce a drive, such as taking a challenging course or working a difficult job.

What does 'arousal' refer to in the context of Optimum Arousal Theory?

Arousal refers to a person's feelings of being alert and engaged.

According to the Yerkes-Dodson law, performance is best under what level of arousal?

Performance is best under conditions of moderate arousal, rather than either low or high arousal.

What is 'overlearning' and why is it useful for performance under high arousal?

Overlearning is learning to perform a task so well that it becomes automatic, allowing individuals to rely on 'autopilot' in high-stress situations.

What did the classic experiment by Walter Cannon and A. L. Washburn demonstrate about hunger?

It revealed a close association between stomach contractions and the feeling of hunger pangs.

What is the function of the hormone cholecystokinin (CCK) in relation to hunger?

CCK helps start the digestion of food and travels to the brain to signal us to stop eating.

Which chemical substance, also known as blood sugar, is a critical energy source for the brain and an important factor in hunger?

Glucose.

How do simple sugars like candy affect insulin levels and subsequent hunger?

They cause insulin levels to rise and then fall sharply, making it more likely for a person to eat again within the next several hours.

What is 'leptin' and what is its primary function related to food intake?

Leptin is a chemical released by fat cells that decreases food intake and increases energy expenditure.

What is the function of the lateral hypothalamus in regulating hunger?

The lateral hypothalamus is involved in stimulating eating; destroying it causes a starving animal to show no interest in food.

What is the function of the ventromedial hypothalamus in regulating hunger?

The ventromedial hypothalamus is involved in reducing hunger and restricting eating; destroying it causes an animal to eat profusely.

The neurotransmitter _____ is partly responsible for the satiating effect of CCK.

Serotonin.

What is 'set point' in the context of weight?

Set point is the weight maintained when an individual makes no effort to gain or lose weight, determined partly by the number of fat cells.

What surprising factor, investigated by Brian Wansink, influences portion size and how much people eat?

Plate size; larger plates often lead people to serve larger portions and eat more.

What is 'restrained eating'?

It is the intention to deliberately restrict food intake to prevent weight gain or promote weight loss.

What is the 'what-the-hell effect' in restrained eaters?

It is a behavioural pattern where consuming a forbidden high-calorie food breaks the will to restrict intake, causing subsequent overeating.

According to research, what can cause restrained eaters to overeat even before starting a diet?

Merely being told that they will have to start a diet the next day can cause them to lose their regular dietary restraint.

What are the three main characteristics of anorexia nervosa?

Severely restricted food intake, intense fear of gaining weight, and a distorted body image.

Anorexia nervosa has the highest mortality rate of any psychological disorder, at about _____ percent of individuals dying within 10 years of diagnosis.

5.6

How does atypical anorexia nervosa (AAN) differ from anorexia nervosa (AN)?

Individuals with AAN have similar symptoms to AN but are of normal to overweight or obese weight.

What is 'bulimia nervosa'?

It is an eating disorder in which an individual consistently repeats a binge-and-purge eating pattern.

Individuals with bulimia nervosa tend to have high standards but low _____, the confidence they can achieve their goals.

Self-efficacy

What is 'Binge Eating Disorder (BED)'?

BED is characterized by recurrent episodes of eating large amounts of food in a short time, with a feeling of lack of control, but without purging.

What is the most common of all eating disorders, affecting men and women more similarly than anorexia or bulimia?

Binge eating disorder (BED).

Problems in regulating the neurotransmitter _____ are related to both anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa.

Serotonin

Research using fMRI has found diminished activity in which brain area in individuals with BED, which is involved in self-regulation and impulse control?

The prefrontal cortex.

What are the five levels of Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs, in order from most basic to most complex?

Physiological needs, safety, love and belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization.

In Maslow's hierarchy, what is 'self-actualization'?

It is the motivation to develop one's full potential as a human being, which is only possible after other needs are met.

What is the highest level of motivation Maslow later added to his hierarchy, which involved service to others?

Self-transcendence.

According to the Blackfoot belief system, which influenced Maslow, where is self-actualization placed in their model?

Self-actualization (niita'pitapi) is at the base of society, followed by cultural actualization.

What are the three basic, innate organismic needs according to Deci and Ryan's Self-Determination Theory?

Competence, relatedness, and autonomy.

In Self-Determination Theory, what is 'competence'?

Competence is the need met when we feel that we are able to bring about desired outcomes.

In Self-Determination Theory, what is 'relatedness'?

Relatedness is the need to engage in warm, meaningful relations with other people.

In Self-Determination Theory, what is 'autonomy'?

Autonomy is the sense that we are in control of our own life and that our behaviour is self-motivated.

What is 'intrinsic motivation'?

It is motivation based on internal factors such as organismic needs (competence, relatedness, autonomy), curiosity, challenge, and fun.

What is 'extrinsic motivation'?

It is motivation that involves external incentives such as rewards and punishments.

What is 'self-regulation' in the context of pursuing goals?

Self-regulation is the process by which an organism effortfully controls behaviour in order to pursue important objectives.

What effect did viewing outstanding essays have on students in a massive online course, according to Rogers & Feller (2016)?

Students who graded outstanding essays were more likely to quit the course and earned lower final grades if they stayed.

What is 'delay of gratification'?

It is the act of putting off a pleasurable experience in the interest of some larger but later reward.

In Walter Mischel's marshmallow experiments, what strategy helped children resist temptation and wait for a larger reward?

They were able to distract themselves by focusing on 'cool thoughts' unrelated to the marshmallow.

What did a recent replication study suggest about the link between delay of gratification and long-term success, compared to Mischel's original findings?

It suggested a child's social and economic background, not just the ability to delay gratification, is behind long-term success.

What is 'impulsivity'?

Impulsivity is the tendency to act rashly, without thinking or planning.

What is 'procrastination'?

Procrastination means intentionally putting off actions on a goal.

Research on adult twins suggests that procrastination is genetically linked with what two other traits?

Impulsivity and low levels of executive function.

What are the three components of 'emotion'?

Physiological arousal (e.g., fast heartbeat), conscious experience (e.g., feeling joy), and behavioural expression (e.g., a smile).

Which division of the autonomic nervous system is responsible for the 'fight or flight' response?

The sympathetic nervous system (SNS).

Which division of the autonomic nervous system is responsible for the 'rest and digest' response?

The parasympathetic nervous system (PNS).

What does a polygraph, or lie detector, actually measure?

It monitors physiological changes such as heart rate, breathing, and skin conductance level, which are thought to be influenced by emotional states.

According to the James-Lange theory of emotion, what is the sequence of events leading to an emotional experience?

A stimulus triggers a physiological reaction, and the emotion is the perception of that reaction (e.g., you are afraid because you are running).

How does the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion differ from the James-Lange theory?

The Cannon-Bard theory proposes that emotion and physiological reactions occur simultaneously, not one after the other.

The brain circuitry for fear, as charted by Joseph LeDoux, involves a direct pathway from the thalamus to the ____ for rapid response.

amygdalae

Why is it often difficult to control our emotions or unlearn fears, according to brain structure?

The amygdalae send more connections to the cerebral cortex than they receive, giving them more influence over our thinking and decision making.

According to Schachter and Singer's two-factor theory, what two factors determine emotion?

Physiological arousal and cognitive labelling.

What did the Schachter and Singer epinephrine study demonstrate?

It showed that when participants' feelings were ambiguous, they looked to external cues (a euphoric or angry person) to label their arousal as an emotion.

What phenomenon did the Dutton and Aron (1974) 'scary bridge' study demonstrate?

It demonstrated the misattribution of arousal, where men on a scary bridge misattributed their fear-induced arousal as attraction to the female experimenter.

In the primacy debate of emotion, who argued that cognitive appraisal determines our feelings (thinking comes first)?

Richard Lazarus.

In the primacy debate of emotion, who argued that emotions are primary and thoughts result from them ('preferences need no inferences')?

Robert Zajonc.

What is the 'facial feedback hypothesis'?

It is the idea that facial expressions can influence emotions as well as reflect them, as facial muscles send signals to the brain.

What did Paul Ekman's cross-cultural research on facial expressions reveal?

It revealed that the facial expressions for basic emotions like happiness, fear, and anger do not differ significantly from one culture to another.

What are 'display rules' in the context of emotion?

Display rules are sociocultural standards that determine when, where, and how emotions should be expressed.

What does the 'valence' of an emotion refer to?

Valence refers to whether an emotion feels pleasant (positive valence) or unpleasant (negative valence).

What does the 'arousal level' of an emotion refer to?

Arousal level is the degree to which the emotion is reflected in being active and engaged versus passive and calm.

"What is the 'circumplex model of emotions'?","It is a model that arranges emotional states in a circle based on two independent dimensions: valence (pleasant/unpleasant) and arousal level (high/low)."

"According to Barbara Fredrickson's broaden-and-build model, what is the function of positive emotions?","The function is to broaden the scope of attention and foster the building of personal resources."

"In psychology, what is 'resilience'?","Resilience is the ability to bounce back from negative experiences, to be flexible and adaptable when things are not going well."

"What is the 'happiness set point'?","It is a person's basic level of happiness when they are not intentionally trying to increase it, which is likely influenced by genetic factors."

"What is the 'hedonic treadmill'?","It is the concept that any life change that enhances positive feelings does so for only a short time, as people adapt and return to their baseline happiness."

"According to Sonja Lyubomirsky, what is a powerful way to enhance happiness?","Engaging in altruistic behaviour, such as habitually helping others through various acts of service."

"What simple activity, studied by Emmons and McCullough, has been shown to enhance happiness and well-being?","Keeping a gratitude journal and regularly counting one's blessings."

"Terry Fox's cross-country run was named the _____ of Hope.","Marathon"

"At what age was Terry Fox diagnosed with osteogenic sarcoma (bone cancer)?","He was diagnosed at the age of 18."

"What is the term for a rise in the skin's electrical conductivity when sweat gland activity increases, used as a measure of arousal?","Skin conductance level (SCL), also known as galvanic skin response (GSR)."

"What is the main reason that polygraph test results are considered unreliable and often inadmissible in court?","Physiological arousal can increase for reasons other than lying, such as nervousness, leading to inaccurate results."

"According to Self-Determination Theory, valuing extrinsic qualities like money and prestige over organismic needs is associated with what outcomes?","It is associated with lowered well-being, lowered self-actualization, and physical illness."