divorce

why is divorce significant

• divorce is a major cause of changing family patterns and greater family diversity.

• For example, most re-marriages involve a divorcee, and divorce creates both lone-parent families and one-person households.

Changing patterns of divorce

• Since the 19__, there has been a great increase in the number of divorces in the United Kingdom

• The number of divorces d____ between 19___ and 19__, and doubled again by 1972.

• The upward trend continued, peaking in 19_ at 165,000.

• Since then, numbers have f____ somewhat, but still stood at 118,000 in 20___ - about six times higher than in 19___.

• This rate means that about ___% of all marriages will end in divorce.

Changing patterns of divorce

• Since the 1960s, there has been a great increase in the number of divorces in the United Kingdom

• The number of divorces doubled between 1961 and 1969, and doubled again by 1972.

• The upward trend continued, peaking in 1993 at 165,000.

• Since then, numbers have fallen somewhat, but still stood at 118,000 in 2012 - about six times higher than in 1961.

• This rate means that about 40% of all marriages will end in divorce.

Changing patterns of divorce

• One reason for the fall in the number of divorces since the 19___s is that fewer people anre doing what? and are choosing to c___ instead.

• About ___% of p____ (a____) for divorce now come from w___. This is in s____ c___ to the situation in the past.

• For example, in 19___, only ___% of petitions came from women - barely half today's figure.

• what is the commonest reason for a woman to be granted a divorce?

• Some couples are more likely than others to divorce. - which couples are at greatest risk ?

Changing patterns of divorce

• One reason for the fall in the number of divorces since the 1990s is that fewer people are marrying in the first place and are choosing to cohabit instead.

• About 65% of petitions (applications) for divorce now come from women. This is in sharp contrast to the situation in the past.

• For example, in 1946, only 37% of petitions came from women - barely half today's figure.

• The commonest reason for a woman to be granted a divorce is the unreasonable behaviour of her spouse.

• Some couples are more likely than others to divorce. - Couples whose marriages are at greatest risk include those who marry young, have a child before they marry or cohabit before marriage, and those where one or both partners have been married before.

what are 7 explanations for the increase in divorce 

1. changes in the law

2. declining stigma and changing attitudes

3. secularisation

4. rising expectations of marriage 

5. women’s increased financial independence 

6. feminist explanations 

7. modernity and individualisation 

changes in the law 

• Divorce was very d____ to o____ in ___-century Britain, especially for w___.

• Gradually, changes in the law have made divorce e____. There have been three kinds of change in the law - what are they ? 

changes in the law 

• Divorce was very difficult to obtain in 19th-century Britain, especially for women.

• Gradually, changes in the law have made divorce easier. There have been three kinds of change in the law:

1. Equalising the grounds (the legal reasons) for divorce between the sexes

2. Widening the grounds for divorce

3. Making divorce cheaper.

changes in the law 

• a husband could divorce his wife only for a____, but a wife had to prove what?

• The 19___ M____ C____ A____ equalised the grounds — meaning both men and women could now divorce their spouse s____ on the basis of a____, making the law f___ and e___ between the sexes

• When the grounds were equalised for men and women in 19___, this was followed by a what?

• Similarly, the w___ of the grounds in 19___ to 'i____ b___' made divorce easier to o____ and produced a d____ of the divorce rate almost o____.

• The introduction of what ? in 19___ lowered the c____ of d____. Divorce rates have risen with each change in the law.

changes in the law 

• a husband could divorce his wife only for adultery, but a wife had to prove adultery plus cruelty, desertion or another offence.

• The 1923 Matrimonial Causes Act equalised the grounds — meaning both men and women could now divorce their spouse solely on the basis of adultery, making the law fair and equal between the sexes

• When the grounds were equalised for men and women in 1923, this was followed by a sharp rise in the number of divorce petitions from women.

• Similarly, the widening of the grounds in 1971 to 'irretrievable breakdown' made divorce easier to obtain and produced a doubling of the divorce rate almost overnight.

• The introduction of legal aid for divorce cases in 1949 lowered the cost of divorcing. Divorce rates have risen with each change in the law.

changes in the law 

Although divorce is the l_____ t of a marriage, couples can and do find other solutions to the problem of an unhappy marriage. These include what 3 solutions? 

1. Desertion, where one partner leaves the other but the couple remain legally married

2. Legal separation, where a court separates the financial and legal affairs of the couple but where they remain married and are not free to re-marry

3. 'Empty shell' marriage, where the couple continue to live under the same roof but remain married in name only.

However, as divorce has become easier to obtain, these solutions have become less p____.

changes in the law 

Although divorce is the legal termination of a marriage, couples can and do find other solutions to the problem of an unhappy marriage. These include:

1. Desertion, where one partner leaves the other but the couple remain legally married

2. Legal separation, where a court separates the financial and legal affairs of the couple but where they remain married and are not free to re-marry

3. 'Empty shell' marriage, where the couple continue to live under the same roof but remain married in name only.

However, as divorce has become easier to obtain, these solutions have become less popular.

Declining stigma and changing attitudes

• what does the word Stigma refer to ?

• In the past, divorce and divorcees have been s____.

• For example, c____ tended to c_____ divorce and often refused to conduct marriage services involving d____.

• M_____ and G____ (1997) note that an important change since the 19__s has been the what?

• As stigma declines and divorce becomes more s_____ a____, couples become more willing to resort to divorce as a means of solving what?

• In turn, the fact that divorce is now more c____ begins to 'n____' it and reduces the stigma attached to it.

• Rather than being seen as s_____, today it is more likely to be regarded simply as a m____.

Declining stigma and changing attitudes

• Stigma refers to the negative label, social disapproval or shame attached to a person, action or relationship.

• In the past, divorce and divorcees have been stigmatised.

• For example, churches tended to condemn divorce and often refused to conduct marriage services involving divorcees.

• Mitchell and Goody (1997) note that an important change since the 1960s has been the rapid decline in the stigma attached to divorce.

• As stigma declines and divorce becomes more socially acceptable, couples become more willing to resort to divorce as a means of solving their marital problems.

• In turn, the fact that divorce is now more common begins to 'normalise' it and reduces the stigma attached to it.

• Rather than being seen as shameful, today it is more likely to be regarded simply as a misfortune.

Secularisation

• what does the word Secularisation refers to ?

• Many sociologists argue that r_____ i____ and i____ are losing their i____ and society is becoming more s____. For example, what rates continue to decline?

• As a result of secularisation, the traditional opposition of the churches to divorce carries less w____ in society and people are less likely to be i____ by r____ t_____ when making decisions about p____ m____ such as whether or not to file for divorce.

• At the same time, many churches have also begun to s____ their views on divorce and divorcees, perhaps because they f____ losing c_____ with large sections of the public and with their own members.

Secularisation

• Secularisation refers to the decline of the influence of religion in society.

• Many sociologists argue that religious institutions and ideas are losing their influence and society is becoming more secular. For example, church attendance rates continue to decline.

• As a result of secularisation, the traditional opposition of the churches to divorce carries less weight in society and people are less likely to be influenced by religious teachings when making decisions about personal matters such as whether or not to file for divorce.

• At the same time, many churches have also begun to soften their views on divorce and divorcees, perhaps because they fear losing credibility with large sections of the public and with their own members.

 Rising expectations of marriage

• Functionalist sociologists such as R____ F____ (1966) argue that the what is a major cause of rising divorce rates?

• what make couples less willing to tolerate an unhappy marriage?

• This is linked to the ideology of r____ l____ - an idea that has become d____ over the last couple of centuries.

• This is the belief that marriage should be based solely on l____, and that for each individual there is a M_ or M____ R___ out there.

• It follows that if l____ d____, there is no longer any j____ for remaining  m____ and every reason to d_____ so as to. be able to renew the s____ for one's true soulmate.

 Rising expectations of marriage

• Functionalist sociologists such as Ronald Fletcher (1966) argue that the higher expectations people place on marriage today are a major cause of rising divorce rates.

• Higher expectations make couples less willing to tolerate an unhappy marriage.

• This is linked to the ideology of romantic love - an idea that has become dominant over the last couple of centuries.

• This is the belief that marriage should be based solely on love, and that for each individual there is a Mr or Miss Right out there.It follows that if love dies, there is no longer any justification for remaining married and every reason to divorce so as to. be able to renew the search for one's true soulmate.

 Rising expectations of marriage

• In the past, by contrast, individuals often had l_____ c____ in who they married, and at a time when the family was also a u____ of p___, marriages were often contracted largely for e____ reasons or out of d___ to one's family.

• Under these circumstances, individuals were unlikely to have the what? that many couples have today.

• Entering marriage with l____ e____, they were therefore less likely to be d___ by the absence of r____ and i___.

• Today, on the other hand, marriage is increasingly viewed not as a b____ c____, but as a relationship in which individuals seek p____ f____, and this e____ couples to divorce if they do not find it.

• As A_____ and C____ (2001) put it: “L___, p_____ c____ and i____ s_____ are now seen as the c_____ of m____.”

Rising expectations of marriage

• In the past, by contrast, individuals often had little choice in who they married, and at a time when the family was also a unit of production, marriages were often contracted largely for economic reasons or out of duty to one's family.

• Under these circumstances, individuals were unlikely to have the high expectations about marriage as a romantic union of two souls that many couples have today.

• Entering marriage with lower expectations, they were therefore less likely to be dissatisfied by the absence of romance and intimacy.

• Today, on the other hand, marriage is increasingly viewed not as a binding contract, but as a relationship in which individuals seek personal fulfilment, and this encourages couples to divorce if they do not find it.

• As Allan and Crow (2001) put it: “Love, personal commitment and intrinsic satisfaction are now seen as the cornerstones of marriage.”

Rising expectations of marriage

• However, despite what? functionalists such as F____ take an optimistic view.

• They point to the c_____ p____ of marriage. Most adults m___, and the high rate of r___-m___ after divorce shows that although divorcees may have become d____ with a particular partner, they have not rejected what?

✘- However, feminist critics argue that this is too r____ a v____.

• They argue that what? is the main cause of marital conflict and divorce, but functionalists ignore this.

• Although functionalists offer an explanation of rising divorce rates, they fail to explain what

Rising expectations of marriage

• However, despite today's high divorce rates, functionalists such as Fletcher take an optimistic view.

• They point to the continuing popularity of marriage. Most adults marry, and the high rate of re-marriage after divorce shows that although divorcees may have become dissatisfied with a particular partner, they have not rejected marriage as an institution.

✘- However, feminist critics argue that this is too rosy a view.

• They argue that the oppression of women within the family is the main cause of marital conflict and divorce, but functionalists ignore this.

• Although functionalists offer an explanation of rising divorce rates, they fail to explain why it is mainly women rather than men who seek divorce.

Women's increased financial independence

• One reason for women's increased willingness to seek divorce is that improvements in their e_____ p____ have made them less f____ d____ on their husband and therefore f___ to end an u____ marriage.

• Women today are much more likely to be in p____ w___- The p_____ of w____ working rose from ___% in 19___ to ___% in 20___.

• Although women generally still earn l____ than men, what has helped to narrow the pay gap?

• Girls' greater success in e____ now helps them achieve b____-p____ jobs than previous generations.

• The availability of w____ b____ means that women no longer have to remain f____ d__ on their husbands.

• These developments mean that women are more likely to be able to s____ themselves in the event of divorce.

Women's increased financial independence

• One reason for women's increased willingness to seek divorce is that improvements in their economic position have made them less financially dependent on their husband and therefore freer to end an unsatisfactory marriage.

• Women today are much more likely to be in paid work- The proportion of women working rose from 53% in 1971 to 72% in 2020.

• Although women generally still earn less than men, equal pay and anti-discrimination laws have helped to narrow the pay gap.

• Girls' greater success in education now helps them achieve better-paid jobs than previous generations.

• The availability of welfare benefits means that women no longer have to remain financially dependent on their husbands

• These developments mean that women are more likely to be able to support themselves in the event of divorce.

Women's increased financial independence

• A____ and C___  argue that "marriage is less e____ within the e____ system" now.

• There are fewer f____ f___ and the family is no longer what? so spouses are not so d_____ on each other e____.

• n particular, women now have their own separate source of i____ from paid work.

• Not having to rely on their husband financially, women therefore do not have to tolerate c____ or the a____ of l___, and in such circumstances they are more willing to seek divorce.

Women's increased financial independence

• Allan and Crow  argue that "marriage is less embedded within the economic system" now.

• There are fewer family firms and the family is no longer a unit of production, so spouses are not so dependent on each other economically.

• n particular, women now have their own separate source of income from paid work.

• Not having to rely on their husband financially, women therefore do not have to tolerate conflict or the absence of love, and in such circumstances they are more willing to seek divorce.

Feminist explanations

• Feminists argue that married women today bear a dual burden: what is this ?

• In the view of feminists, this has created a new source of c____ between husbands and wives, and this is leading to a higher divorce rate than in the past.

Feminist explanations

• Feminists argue that married women today bear a dual burden: they are required to take on paid work in addition to performing domestic labour (housework and childcare).

• In the view of feminists, this has created a new source of conflict between husbands and wives, and this is leading to a higher divorce rate than in the past.

Feminist explanations

• While there may have been big improvements in women's position in the p___ s___ of e____, e___, p___ and so on, feminists argue that in the change has been limited and slow in what sphere?

• They argue that marriage remains p____, with men b____ from their wives' 'triple shift of what?

Feminist explanations

• While there may have been big improvements in women's position in the public sphere of employment, education, politics and so on, feminists argue that in the private sphere of family and personal relationships, change has been limited and slow.

• They argue that marriage remains patriarchal, with men benefiting from their wives' 'triple shift of paid work, domestic work and emotion work

Feminist explanations

• Similarly, A____ H____ (1997) argues that for many women, the home c___ u____ with work.

• At work, women feel v____.

• At home, men's continuing r____ to doing h___ is a source of f_____ and makes marriage l___ s____.

• In addition, the fact that both partners now go out to w_____ leaves less time and e_____ for the e____ work needed to a____ the p____ that arise.

• Both these factors may contribute to a higher divorce rate.

Feminist explanations

• Similarly, Arlie Hochschild (1997) argues that for many women, the home compares unfavourably with work.

• At work, women feel valued.

• At home, men's continuing resistance to doing housework is a source of frustration and makes marriage less stable.

• In addition, the fact that both partners now go out to work leaves less time and energy for the emotion work needed to address the problems that arise.

• Both these factors may contribute to a higher divorce rate.

Feminist explanations

• According to W____ S____-R____ (ESRC, 2007), mothers who have a d____ b___ of p___ w____ and d____ work are more likely to divorce who?

• But where the husband of a working wife is actively involved in h____, the divorce rate is the same as for couples with a traditional division of labour.

✘- However, C____ and G____ (2010) found no evidence that working women are what?

They argue that this is because w___ has now become the a______ n_____ for married women.

Feminist explanations

• According to Wendy Sigle-Rushton (ESRC, 2007), mothers who have a dual burden of paid work and domestic work are more likely to divorce than non-working mothers in marriages with a traditional division of labour.

• But where the husband of a working wife is actively involved in housework, the divorce rate is the same as for couples with a traditional division of labour.

✘- However, Cooke and Gash (2010) found no evidence that working women are more likely to divorce.

They argue that this is because working has now become the accepted norm for married women.

Feminist explanations

• Radical feminists such as J____ B___ (1976) observe that many women feel a growing dissatisfaction with what

• She sees the rising divorce rate, and the fact that most petitions come from women, as evidence of what?

• women are becoming conscious of p_____ o____ and more c___ about rejecting it.

Feminist explanations

• Radical feminists such as Jessie Bernard (1976) observe that many women feel a growing dissatisfaction with patriarchai marriage.

• She sees the rising divorce rate, and the fact that most petitions come from women, as evidence of their growing acceptance of feminist ideas: women are becoming conscious of patriarchal oppression and more confident about rejecting it.

Modernity and individualisation

• Sociologists such as B____ (19___) and G____ (19___) argue that in m____ s____, t____ n_____, such as the duty to remain with the same partner for life, lose their hold over individuals.

• As a result, each individual becomes f____ to p his or her own self-interest. This view has become known as the i______ t____.

Modernity and individualisation

• Sociologists such as Beck (1992) and Giddens (1992) argue that in modern society, traditional norms, such as the duty to remain with the same partner for life, lose their hold over individuals.

• As a result, each individual becomes free to pursue his or her own self-interest. This view has become known as the individualisation thesis.

Modernity and individualisation

• Relationships thus become more f____, because individuals become u____ to remain with a partner if the relationship fails to deliver what?

• Instead, they seek what G_____ calls the 'p___ relationship' - one that exists solely to s____ each p____ n____ and not out of a sense of d____, t____ or for the s_ of the c____

• This results in higher divorce rates.

• At the same time, the rising divorce rate 'n_____' divorce and further strengthens the belief that marriage exists solely for what? 

Modernity and individualisation

• Relationships thus become more fragile, because individuals become unwilling to remain with a partner if the relationship fails to deliver personal fulfilment.

• Instead, they seek what Giddens calls the 'pure relationship' - one that exists solely to satisfy each partner's needs and not out of a sense of duty, tradition or for the sake of the children.

• This results in higher divorce rates.

• At the same time, the rising divorce rate 'normalises' divorce and further strengthens the belief that marriage exists solely to provide personal fulfilment.

Modernity and individualisation

• Modern society also encourages individualism in other ways.

• For example, women as well as men are now expected to w____ and are encouraged to pursue their own i____ c____ a____.

• This can cause c____ of i_____ between spouses and contribute to marital breakdown.

• Some sociologists also argue that modernity encourages people to adopt a what type of identity?

• This pursuit of s___-i___ is likely to pull spouses apart.

Modernity and individualisation

• Modern society also encourages individualism in other ways.

• For example, women as well as men are now expected to work and are encouraged to pursue their own individual career ambitions.

• This can cause conflicts of interest between spouses and contribute to marital breakdown.

• Some sociologists also argue that modernity encourages people to adopt a neoliberal, consumerist identity based on the idea of freedom to follow ones own self-interest.

• This pursuit of self-interest is likely to pull spouses apart.

The meaning of a high divorce rate 

• Sociologists disagree about the effects of today's high divorce rate on society and on individual family members.

The different perspectives on the effect of a high divorce rate :

1. The New Right

2. Feminists

3. Postmodernist and the individualisation thesis

4. functionalist

5. interactionists

6. personal life perspective

i

The meaning of a high divorce rate 

• Sociologists disagree about the effects of today's high divorce rate on society and on individual family members.

• What are the 6 different perspectives on the effect of a high divorce rate?

The meaning of a high divorce rate →The New Right

• why do The New Right see a high divorce rate as undesirable?

• in their view, a high divorce rate creates a what? and it leaves b___ without the a____ male role model they need.

• They believe it also results in p____ and educational outcomes for children.

The meaning of a high divorce rate →The New Right

• The New Right see a high divorce rate as undesirable because it undermines matriage and the traditional nuclear family, which they regard as vital to social stability.

• in their view, a high divorce rate creates a growing underclass of welfare-dependent female lone parents who are a burden on the state and it leaves boys without the adult male role model they need.

• They believe it also results in poorer health and educational outcomes for children.

The meaning of a high divorce rate →Feminist

Feminists see a high divorce rate as desirable because it shows that women are breaking free from the oppression of the patriarchal nuclear family.

The meaning of a high divorce rate →Feminists

Feminists see a high divorce rate as desirable because it shows that women are breaking free from the oppression of the patriarchal nuclear family.

The meaning of a high divorce rate →Postmodernists and the individualisation thesis

• Postmodernists and the individualisation thesis see a high divorce rate as showing that individuals now have the f_____ to choose to end a relationship when it no longer meets their needs.

• They see it as a major cause of what?

The meaning of a high divorce rate →Postmodernists and the individualisation thesis

• Postmodernists and the individualisation thesis see a high divorce rate as showing that individuals now have the freedom to choose to end a relationship when it no longer meets their needs.

• They see it as a major cause of greater family diversity.

The meaning of a high divorce rate →Functionalists

• Functionalists argue that a high divorce rate is not necessarily a t____ to marriage as a s____ i____.

• It is simply the result of people's h____ e____ of marriage today. The high rate of re-marriage shows what

The meaning of a high divorce rate →Functionalists

• Functionalists argue that a high divorce rate is not necessarily a threat to marriage as a social institution.

• It is simply the result of people's higher expectations of marriage today. The high rate of re-marriage shows people's continuing commitment to the idea of marriage.

The meaning of a high divorce rate →Interactionists

• Interactionists aim to understand what divorce means to the i____.

• D____ M____ (1996) argues that we cannot g____ about the meaning of divorce, because every i___ i____ of it is different.

• M____ and G____ provide a good example of this. One of their interviewees described the day her father left what?whereas another said that she had never r____ from her father deserting the family.

The meaning of a high divorce rate →Interactionists

• Interactionists aim to understand what divorce means to the individual.

• David Morgan (1996) argues that we cannot generalise about the meaning of divorce, because every individual's interpretation of it is different.

  Mitchell and Goody provide a good example of this. One of their interviewees described the day her father left as the best day of her life, whereas another said that she had never recovered from her father deserting the family.

The meaning of a high divorce rate →the personal life perspective 

• The personal life perspective accepts that divorce can cause problems, such as what!

• However, writers from this perspective, such as C____ S____ (2011), argue that divorce has become 'n____' and that family life can a____ to it without d__

• Rather than seeing divorce as a major s____ p___, we should see it as just one t____ amongst others in the life course'.

The meaning of a high divorce rate →the personal life perspective 

• The personal life perspective accepts that divorce can cause problems, such as financial difficulties (especially for women and lack of daily contact between children and non-resident parents

• However, writers from this perspective, such as Carol Smart (2011), argue that divorce has become 'normalised' and that family life can adapt to it without disintegrating.

• Rather than seeing divorce as a major social problem, we should see it as just one transition amongst others in the life course'.