PSYC 365: Unit 3

Chapter 6, 7, 8

positive reinforcement

if someone in a given situation does something that is followed immediately by a positive reinforcer, then that person is more likely to do the same thing the next time a similar situation occurs

ex. given an assignment → sits and does work → positive praise → more likely to complete work next time

positive reinforcer

anything that when presented immediately following a behaviour causes the behaviour to increase in frequency

• most effective when presented immediately after a response

operant behaviour

behaviours that operate on the environment to generate consequences and are, in turn, influenced by those consequences

• operant behaviours that are followed by positive reinforcers are increased

• operant behaviours followed by punishers are decreased

selection of the behaviour

• behaviour to be reinforced first must be identified specifically

• general to specific

• help ensure the reliability of detecting instances of the behaviour and changes in its frequency, which is the measure by which one judges reinforcer effectiveness

• increases likelihood that reinforcement program will be applied

selection of the reinforcer

• use a reinforcer that is effective for the individual

consumable reinforcers

items one can eat

activity reinforcers

ex. watch tv. look at a book, ride a book

manipulative reinforcers

ex. build with blocks, colour or paint

possessional reinforcers

enjoy an item one can possess

social reinforcers

indication of social attention

motivating operations

• individual needs to be deprived of reinforcer

• affects likelihood and direction of behaviour

reinforcer size

• determines effectiveness

• reinforcer on each trial should be small enough to minimize satiation to maximize the number of reinforced trials given per session

ex. $0.25 versus $25.00

instructions

• speed up the learning process for individual’s who understand the instructions

• influence an individual to work for delayed reinforcement

• may teach individuals to learn to follow instructions

reinforcer immediacy

for maximum effectiveness, reinforcer should be given immediately after desired response

contingent reinforcement

a specific behaviour must occur before that reinforcer will be presentedn

noncontingent reinforcement

reinforcer is provided regardless of preceding behaviour

natural reinforcement

• after behaviour has increased through positive reinforcement

• may be possible for reinforcer in natural environment to take over

Premack principle

if the opportunity to engage in a behaviour that has a high probability of occurring is made contingent on a behaviour that has a low probability of occurring, then the behaviour that has a low probability of occurring will increase

response deprivation model

• to be a positive reinforcer the behaviour does not have to be a high-probability behaviour

• behaviour must be one currently occurring below its baseline level

• opportunity to engage in any behaviour can reinforce any other behaviour

ex. individual has been deprived of the opportunity to engage in the behaviour

does use of extrinsic reinforcers undermine intrinsic motivation

all reinforcers involve external (extrinsic) stimuli and all have internal (intrinsic) aspects

motivation operation (MO)

events or conditions—such as deprivation and satiation—that (a) temporarily alter the effectiveness of a reinforcer and (b) alter the frequency of behaviour reinforced by that reinforcer

ex. food, overcoming fear

direct effect of a reinforcer

principle of positive reinforcement is the increased frequency of a response because of its immediate reinforcing consequences

indirect effect of a reinforcer

• delayed reinforcers

• self-statements intervene between the behaviour and delayed reinforcer

• provide instructions about delay

adventitious reinforcement

behaviour that is “accidentally” followed by a reinforcer may be increased even if it did not actually produce the reinforcer

superstitious behaviour

behaviour increased through adventitious reinforcement

natural environment

a setting in which an individual carries our normal, everyday functions

natural reinforcers

reinforcers that follow behaviour during everyday living

programmed reinforcers

reinforcers that are arranged systematically by psychologists, teachers, and others in behaviour modification programs

schedule thinning

reinforcement thinning

• the reinforcers in a behavioural program are gradually eliminated

five pitfalls involved in the use of positive reinforcement

• unaware-misapplication pitfall: not aware of positive reinforcement, may use it unknowingly to strengthen undesirable behaviour

• partial-knowledge-misapplication pitfall: may know a behavioural principle but not realize ramifications that interfere with applying it effectively

• failure-to-apply pitfall: complex and require specialized training or knowledge

• inaccurate-explanation-of-behaviour pitfall: inaccurately explain behaviour, should always look for immediate consequences that strengthened behaviour, “explain” behaviour or lack of it by inappropriately giving people a label

three indicators that a behaviour change is due to indirect effects rather than direct effects of a reinforcer

1. consequence follows the reinforcer by more than 30 seconds

2. behaviour that is measured shows some increase in strength prior to the first occurrence of the consequence

3. a single occurrence of a consequence produces a large change in behaviour

unconditional reinforcers

stimuli that are reinforcing without prior learning or conditioning

• primary or unlearned reinforcers

ex. food, water, warmth

conditioned reinforcers

stimuli that were not originally reinforcing but have become reinforcers by being paired or associated with other reinforcers

• secondary or learned reinforcers

ex. praise, things we like, picture of a loved one

backup reinforcers

stimulus becomes a conditioned reinforcer through deliberate association with other reinforcers, the other reinforcers are called backup reinforcers

• can be either conditioned or unconditioned

tokens

conditioned reinforcers that can be accumulated and exchanged for backup reinforcers

token economy or token system

behaviour modification program that individuals can earn tokens for specific behaviours and can cash tokens in for backup reinforcers

• implemented with larger groups of individuals (token economy)

conditioned punisher

a stimulus paired with punishment becomes punishing itself

ex. demerits, ‘No”, “Stop that”

generalized conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that is paired with more than one kind of backup reinforcer

ex. money

four factors that make conditioned reinforcement effective

1. the strength of the backup reinforcer

2. variety of backup reinforcers

3. number of pairings with a backup reinforcer

4. loss of value of a conditioned reinforcer

two common pitfalls of using conditioned reinforcement

1. unaware-misapplication pitfall: people unfamiliar with the principle of conditioned reinforcement may unknowingly misapply it in various ways

   1. partial-knowledge-misapplication pitfall: ceasing to pair a conditioned reinforcer with a backup reinforcer can have unfortunate results for those who are not aware that this will cause a conditioned reinforcer to lose its value

operant extinction

if a response has been increased in frequency through reinforcement, then completely ceasing to reinforce the response will cause it to decrease in frequency

• a decrease in an operant response due to its no longer being followed by a reinforcer

• weakens behaviour due to being emitted without being reinforced

forgetting

a behaviour is weakened as a function of time following its last occurrence

eight factors responsible for the success of extinction

1. control of reinforcers for the behaviour that is to be decreased

2. combining extinction with positive reinforcement for an alternative behaviour

3. the setting in which extinction is carried out

4. the use of instructions or rules

5. the schedule of reinforcement before extinction is carried out

6. extinction bursting

7. elicited aggression

8. spontaneous recovery

extinction bursting

behaviour being extinguished may get worse before it gets better

• a temporary increase in responding during extinction

elicited aggression

extinction may produce aggression that interferes with the program

spontaneous recovery

reappearance of an extinguished behaviour after a break

resurgence

if for some reason the alternative Behaviour B undergoes extinction, the original Behaviour A may re-emerge

resistance to extinction

• continuous reinforcement→ arrangement or schedule in which each instance of a particular response is reinforced

• intermittent reinforcement → arrangement or schedule in which a response is reinforced only occasionally or intermittently rather than each time it occurs

• behaviour that has been reinforced intermittently extinguishes more slowly than behaviour that has been continuously reinforced

  • behaviour that extinguishes slowly → resistant to extinction

two pitfalls in applying extinction procedures

• unaware-misapplication pitfall: principle of operant extinction operates whether or not we are aware of it

• partial-knowledge-misapplication pitfall: others less knowledgeable about operant extinction may undo their good work

• failure-to-apply pitfall: reinforcement form a well-intentioned person who does not understand the program or its rationale

bootleg reinforcement

undesirable effect of unwanted reinforcement in operant extinction

baseline phase

measure the behavior in a baseline phase before we implement an intervention. This gives you a basis for judging how the intervention impacts the behavior. Baseline is usually what you’re already doing in response to the behavior.

escape conditioning

negative reinforcement

• the removal of an aversive stimulus immediately after the occurrence of a response will increase the likelihood of that response

deprivation

to be a positive reinforcer the behavior does not have to be a high-probability behavior. Rather, the behavior must be one that is currently occurring below its baseline level—i.e., the individual has been deprived of the opportunity to engage in the behavior.

• to indicate the time during which an individual does not experience the reinforcer.

satiation

refers to the condition in which the individual has experienced the reinforcer to such an extent that it is no longer reinforcing.

bribery versus reinforcement

bribery—a reward or a gift offered to induce someone to commit an immoral or illegal act

reinforcement program to increase desirable behavior.

contrived reinforcers

Contrived reinforcers are events provided by someone for the purpose of modifying behavior. They are also known as conditioned reinforcers or secondary reinforcers. These reinforcers become reinforcing after being associated with primary reinforcers or other conditioned reinforcers. An example of a contrived reinforcer is money.

response-cost punishment

a reinforcer is taken away following an undesirable response. Examples of response cost in everyday life are library fines, traffic tickets, and charges for overdrawn bank accounts