Diversity of Form and Function - Final

Invaginates

Pushes or enfolds inward to create a pouch; creates an indentation of the phagocytic membrane when ingesting foreign material.

Achenteron

Opening in the blastopore that becomes the digestive system.

Endoderm

innermost germ layer; develops into the linings of the digestive tract and much of the respiratory system

Ectoderm

outermost germ layer; produces sense organs, nerves, and outer layer of skin

Animal Hemisphere

The upper, rapidly dividing region of an egg that contains less yolk

Vegetal Hemisphere

Lower, yolk rich region of and egg

Grey Crescent

Opposite the point of entry of a sperm that marks the dorsal side of the embryo

Blastopore

The opening of the central cavity of an embryo in the early stage of development

Blastomere

A cell that is formed by the cleavage of a fertilized ovum

Blastocoel

The fluid-filled cavity of a blastula

Blastodisc

Cells that divide on top of the yolk in the eggs of reptiles and birds

Primitive Streak

a midline structure in the developing embryo

Hensen's Node

A group of cells that acts as the key organizer for developing cells into structures like the notochord and neural tube

Mesoderm

The middle layer of an embryo in early development

Morphogenesis

The biological process by which a cell, tissue, or organism develops its shape

Germ Layer Fates

Ectoderm, Endoderm, Mesoderm

Notochord

A cartilaginous skeletal rod supporting the body in all embryonic and adult chordate animals

Neurulation

The process of the neural plate folding and transforming into the neural tube

neural tube

an embryonic structure that develops into the CNS, brain, and spinal cord

Neural Crest cells

specialized cells that originate from the dorsal neural tube during vertebrate development

Morphogens

signaling molecules that guide formation of tissues and organs

Zone of Polarizing Activity (ZPA)

A region of tissue that develops into the limb bud and plays a crucial role in determining the axis of the limb

Extraembryonic Membranes - Birds, reptiles, egg-laying mammals

1. Yolk Sac - Grows around yolk, blood vessels and cells

2. Allantois - storage of metabolic waste

3. Amnion - Surrounds embryo, fluid filled sac, protection (shock absorption)

4. Chorion - Limits water loss, creates membrane to facilitate gas exchange

Osmotic Pressure

The minimum pressure which needs to be applied to a solution to prevent the inward flow of its pure solvent across and semipermeable membrane

Isosmotic, Hyperosmotic, Hyposmotic

3 forms of dehydration and overhydration

Ionic Composition

The presence and amounts of ions in a substance, particularly in natural systems

Volume

3-dimensional space taken up by a cell, tissue, or organ

Hyperosmotic

A solution with a higher concentration of solutes compared to a cells internal environment

Hyperosmotic Regulators

Organisms that maintain their body fluids at a higher osmotic pressure than their environment

Active Transport

the movement of materials through a cell membrane using energy

Hypoosmotic Regulators

Organisms tht maintain their internal fluid osmolarity lower than their surrounding environment

Mitochondria-rich cells

Cells in gills absorbing salt from water

Chloride cells

Cells in the gills of fishes that are involved in the excretion of excess salts

Salt Glands

Located in head, secrete highly concentrated salt solution

Mammalian Excretory System

Primary organ - kidneys

functional unit - nephron (filters blood)

Glomerulus

A ball of capillaries in the nephron and serving as the site of filtration in the vertebrate kidney. Increased blood pressure, increased filtration of blood

Bowman's Capsule

Collects filtrate

proximal convoluted tubule

first section of the renal tubule that the blood flows through; reabsorption of water, ions, and all organic nutrients

Loop of Henle

Concentrates urine and recovers water and salt

Distal Convoluted Tubule

Concentrates urine and acts as a buffer system

Collecting Duct

Final site of urine concentration before its excreted

Nephron Types

1. Cortical - short loops

2. Juxtamedullary - longer loops, more urine concentration

Behavior is controlled by

The nervous system

Proximate causes

An explanation for why something happens, usually a physiological or developmental cause

Ultimate Cause

Larger scale causes, what causes a species to evolve over time

Biological Determinism

1. genes, nerual tissue, behavior, predictable behaviors

- Can explain behaviors of more simple animals

Critical Survival Value

The degree to which a trait contributes to an organisms reproductive success

Behavioral Imprinting

A type of learning in which animals develop an attachment to the first thing they see (typically their parent)

Trail Following

Trail pheremones to mark a successful trail (Foraging ant workers)

Path integration

Doesn't follow a specific path and uses the shortest, straightest path to get back home

Societies with differing status

Dominant males lead to increased reproductive changes. This also allows better genes to be passed on to the next generations.

Territory

Region occupied by an individual where other individuals are kept out. Sole use of resources within their territory.

Home Range

Region does not exclude other individuals

Cost-Benefit Approach

Individual animal has limited time and energy. Cannot engage in behaviors if it costs more than it benefits the individual

Northern Hemisphere

Tilts towards sun April-Sept.

Southern Hemisphere

Tilts towards sun Sept. - April

Higher Altitudes

Air is less dense and holds less water (Cooler), provides similar conditions to high latitude

Climate affects winds, precipitation

Warm air: holds moisture and rises. As it cools, moisture precipitates.

Cool, dry air: displaced by rising moist air

Winds

Rotation of air faster at equators than at poles. Currents warm high latitudes and cool low latitudes

Prevailing Winds

the dominant wind directions in a specific region

Geographical influences on climate

land near oceans see milder temperatures (water has high specific heat)

-mountain ranges can produce rain shadows (as air rises up slope, it cools, releases water). on leeward side, air is dry, creating a desert

Adaptions to specific climates

Ice crystals in cells disrupts membranes. if too hot, proteins lose structure and enzymes cannot function

Behavioral Adaptions

Many species can survive unfavorable conditions by altering behavior (Hibernation, burrowing, migration)

Biomes

Regional land are, defined by climate and geography (terrestrial). Characterized by similar organisms where vegetation is a primary character that provides food and habitat.

Different Kinds of Biomes

1. Tropical Rain Forest - warm wet, high productivity and high diversity

2. Deserts (Hot or cold) - dry, productivity limited by water

3. Temperate hardwood woodlands - seasonal variation in temperature, wet, high productivity

4. Temperate grasslands - drier than woodlands

5. Chaparral - hot dry summers, cool, wet winters

6. Temperate evergreen forests

7. Taiga and tundra - cold, limited precipitation

Tallgrass prairie

Drier than woodlands, fires shape the landscape (most trees are killed by fires). Deep roots hold and enrich soil. Corn replaced prairie (soil no longer held)

Aquatic Enviroments

Oceans are continuous, marine species are not. Life zones defined by illumination (Shallow, intermediate, deep)

Freshwater

Rivers and lakes, variation in illumination, nutrients are circulated each year by overturn

Estuaries, fresh and salt water meet

Minerals come from weathered rock

surface waters - nutrient poor but oxygen rich

Deep waters - nutrient rich but oxygen poor

Dispersal of species

Barries - topographical (mountain ranges rivers, lakes, oceans/continent

Continental Drift

The hypothesis that states that the continents once formed a single landmass, broke up, and drifted to their present locations (Pangea). Species moved apart and mutated independently which causes species to become endemic

Area Phylogenies

Use the current geographical distribution of related species in combination with an understanding of their relatedness to uncover the history of speciation

Populations

Interacting group of members of a species. measured at a defined time

Range

The geographical area where species naturally lives and can be found

Endemic

A species limited to a defined location

Cosmopolitan

a species that is distributed widely

Dispersion

1. Clumped dispersion - clumped together in small groups (orcas)

2. Regular dispersion - equal distances among individuals (birds on an island)

3. Random dispersion - Random placement (Flowers)

Population changes

individuals are born, die while also immigrating and emigrating

Demographics

Age of individuals in population influences whether births or deaths are likely (past reproduction age)

Life tables

age-specific summaries of the survival pattern of a population that can predict the future of a population

Fecundity Tables

How likely an individual of a given age is to produce offspring.

Survivorship Curves

Type 1: most individuals survive to reproduction

Type 2: Constant risk of mortality at all ages

Type 3: most die as juveniles

r=b-d

r - rate of population growth

b- births

d- deaths

Limits to population densities

If resources are unlimited, how big can populations get? (exponential growth)

Carrying capacity

Largest number of individuals of a population that a environment can support, has a logistic growth curve, ends when something becomes limited (food, shelter)

r strategists

high rates of reproduction, broad range of habitats, many offspring, limited parental investment, population size fluctuates

K strategists

population steady near K, narrow range, high parental investment, long lives

Density dependent (biotic) factors

Food can become scarce, poor nutrition, large populations attract predators. dense populations can pass disease easier

Density Dependent (abiotic)

Natural disturbances (extreme cold, hurricanes), reduce populations regardless of density

Why are some populations more dense than others?

Generalist vs specialist (food), Smaller vs larger bodies, social vs solitary, introduced vs native (predators and pathogens)

Mosaics of populations

Metapopulation

- Provide new individuals if a particular patch dies off

- Requires "corridors" - physical connections among patches

- Islands - isolated populations

- conversion of natural areas to development, agriculture

Population Management

life history strategies inform population management

Antagonistic

One benefits, one is harmed

Mutualism

Both benefit - not always equally

Competition

Neither benefits, compete for resources

Unstable - eventually one becomes locally extinct

Selection can cause change in predation - owls hunt at night where hawks hunt during the day

Interference competition - one species interferes with access to resource

Exploitation competition - one species is more effective in using resource, can lead to resource allocation

Commensalism

One benefits, the other is unaffected

Amensalism

One is harmed, the other is unaffected

Niche

The set of physical and biological conditions a species requires for survival, growth, and reproduction. Two species cannot coexist if their niches are identical

Coevolution

Interactions over time result in selection for traits in one species that improve outcome in interaction (evolutionary arms race)

predator

Fast, strong, sharp claws, teeth