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Nicolaus Copernicus
Proposed the heliocentric model of the universe, challenging the Ptolemaic model but mistakenly maintained circular orbits.
Brahe's Theory
A geocentric and heliocentric hybrid model where both celestial systems might coexist.
Kepler's Laws of Motion
Three laws: elliptical orbits, varying speeds of planets, and orbital time related to distance from the sun.
Galileo Galilei
Used a telescope for astronomical observations; validated Copernicus' theory and faced Inquisition for heresy.
Rene Descartes
Philosopher known for deduction and Cartesian dualism, emphasizing the separation of mind and matter.
Francis Bacon
Advocated empiricism and inductive reasoning, emphasizing observation and human improvement.
Isaac Newton
Formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation; his work is fundamental to physics.
Deism
The belief that reason and observation of the natural world can reveal the existence of a creator who does not intervene in the universe.
Royal Societies
Organizations established to promote scientific inquiry, such as the Royal Society in England and the French Academy of Sciences.
Thomas Hobbes
Wrote 'Leviathan', advocating for a strong central government due to the brutish nature of humans.
John Locke
Philosopher who argued for natural rights and government by consent; wrote 'Two Treatises of Government'.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Introduced the concept of the social contract and believed in the innate goodness of humans.
Baron de Montesquieu
Proposed the separation of powers and checks and balances in government.
Voltaire
Criticized injustice and advocated for freedom of expression and religious toleration.
Mary Wollstonecraft
In her work 'A Vindication of the Rights of Woman', she argued for women's equality based on reason.
Enlightened Despot
Absolute monarchs who embraced Enlightenment ideas and implemented reforms to prevent rebellion.
Frederick the Great
Prussian monarch who promoted meritocracy and religious toleration while implementing legal reforms.
Catherine the Great
Russian monarch known for her administrative reforms, religious toleration, and economic growth.
Joseph II of Austria
Enlightened despot known for religious toleration, economic reforms, and the abolition of serfdom on state lands.
Emilie du Châtelet
Translated Newton’s 'Principa' into French and demonstrated scientific knowledge.
Margaret Cavendish
Philosopher and writer who engaged publicly in debates with major thinkers of her time.
Maria Winkelmann
Acclaimed astronomer who discovered a comet but was excluded from formal scientific institutions.