Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment

Nicolaus Copernicus

Proposed the heliocentric model of the universe, challenging the Ptolemaic model but mistakenly maintained circular orbits.

Brahe's Theory

A geocentric and heliocentric hybrid model where both celestial systems might coexist.

Kepler's Laws of Motion

Three laws: elliptical orbits, varying speeds of planets, and orbital time related to distance from the sun.

Galileo Galilei

Used a telescope for astronomical observations; validated Copernicus' theory and faced Inquisition for heresy.

Rene Descartes

Philosopher known for deduction and Cartesian dualism, emphasizing the separation of mind and matter.

Francis Bacon

Advocated empiricism and inductive reasoning, emphasizing observation and human improvement.

Isaac Newton

Formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation; his work is fundamental to physics.

Deism

The belief that reason and observation of the natural world can reveal the existence of a creator who does not intervene in the universe.

Royal Societies

Organizations established to promote scientific inquiry, such as the Royal Society in England and the French Academy of Sciences.

Thomas Hobbes

Wrote 'Leviathan', advocating for a strong central government due to the brutish nature of humans.

John Locke

Philosopher who argued for natural rights and government by consent; wrote 'Two Treatises of Government'.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Introduced the concept of the social contract and believed in the innate goodness of humans.

Baron de Montesquieu

Proposed the separation of powers and checks and balances in government.

Voltaire

Criticized injustice and advocated for freedom of expression and religious toleration.

Mary Wollstonecraft

In her work 'A Vindication of the Rights of Woman', she argued for women's equality based on reason.

Enlightened Despot

Absolute monarchs who embraced Enlightenment ideas and implemented reforms to prevent rebellion.

Frederick the Great

Prussian monarch who promoted meritocracy and religious toleration while implementing legal reforms.

Catherine the Great

Russian monarch known for her administrative reforms, religious toleration, and economic growth.

Joseph II of Austria

Enlightened despot known for religious toleration, economic reforms, and the abolition of serfdom on state lands.

Emilie du Châtelet

Translated Newton’s 'Principa' into French and demonstrated scientific knowledge.

Margaret Cavendish

Philosopher and writer who engaged publicly in debates with major thinkers of her time.

Maria Winkelmann

Acclaimed astronomer who discovered a comet but was excluded from formal scientific institutions.