Leading Psychologists

Adler, Alfred

colned the term: INFERIORITY COMPLEX. Believed we are socila creatures governed by social urges, we strive for superiority and attempt to compensate for our shortcomings.

Ainsworth, Mary

Anxious-Ambivalent: desire to be with parent and some resistance to being reunited.

Avoidant-tendency to avoid reunion with parent.

Asch, Solomon

Studied CONFORMITY - subjects were shown lines of different lengths and asked which of the lines matched an example line that they were shown, his accomplices gave the wrong answer to see how the ctual subject would react to finding that their opinion differed from the group opinion, subjects conformed in about 1/3 of the trial

Bandura, Albert

BEHAVIORIST: OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING - SOCIAL LEARNING MODELING - BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT - Studied observational learning in children using a Bobo Doll. Children modeled the adult behavior.

Baumrind, Diana

Studied parenting styles:

AUTHORITARIAN - military style

PERMISSIVE - too lenient

AUTHORITATIVE - BEST style

Beck, Aaron

Developed COGNITIVE THERAPY, in which he seeks to reverse catastrophizing thoughts.

Binet, Alfred

IQ TESTING: Designed the first intelligence test, results were based on average scores for children in each age group His test was revised by Lewis Terman and others at Stanford and made into the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, which were used in U.S.A

Broca, Paul

Reported that damage to a specific area in the left frontal lobe, now called the BROCAS AREA, directs the MUSCLE MOVEMENTS involved in speech

Chomsky, Noam

LANGUAGE THEORY: Proposed that humans possess an innate language acquisition device (LAD) that allows us to learn to speak.

Calkins, Mary Whiton

Studied memory and became the President of the APA in 1905

Costa, Paul and McCrae, Robert

Further developed the BIG FIVE personality trait theory. These traits are: OPENNESS, CONSCIENTIOUSNESS, EXTRAVERSION, AGREEABLENESS, and NEUROTICISM

Ebbinghaus, Hermann

Studied memory, developed the FORGETTING CURVE; which is steep at first, then levels off (we forget most at first, but not all items)

Ellis, Albert

Cognitive therapist, founder of RATIONAL-EMOTIVE BEHAVIORAL THERAPY which attempts to change IRRATIONAL BELIEFS that cause emotional problem

Erikson, Erik

EIGHT STAGES: Proposed that development occurs in stages, each stage confronts a person with a new developmental task

TRUST v. Mistrust

AUTONOMY v. shame and doubt

INITIATIVE v. guilt

INDUSTRY v. inferiority

IDENTITY v. role confusion (teen yrs)

INTIMACY v. isolation (young adulthood)

GENERATIVITY v. stagnation

INTEGRITY v. despair

Festinger, Leon

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE: the mental discomfort caused by having two thoughts (or thought and behavior) that do not match comfortably

Fechner, Gustav

Founded PSYCHOPHYSICS (QUANTITATIVE experimental psychology) by conceiving of ways to measure mental states through JUST NOTICEABLE DIFFERENCES, the METHOD OF CONSTANT STIMULI, and the method of average error

Galton, Francis

Created the statistical concept of correlation. He was the first to apply statistical methods to the study of human differences and introduced the use of questionnaires and surveys for collecting data. He coined the phrase "nature versus nurture. He founded PSYCHOMETRICS (the science of measuring mental faculties).

Gardener, Howard

Theorized that there are actually eight different kinds of intelligence Language, logic and math, visual and spatial thinking, music, bodily-kinesthetic kills, intrapersonal skills, interpersonal skills, naturalist skills

Gilligan, Carol(disapproved Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory pertainig to moral justice)

Created a theory of moral development in women because male psychologists were overly focused on defining moral maturity in terms of justice and autonomy. She pointed out that there is also an ethic of caring about others that is a major element of moral development.

Harlow, Harry

CONTACT COMFORT: Separated baby rhesus monkeys from their mothers at birth, placed them with surrogate mothers either made of wire/metal or cloth, they preferred the cloth mother.

Hilgard Ernest

Researched HYPNOSIS and concluded it is a state of DIVIDED CONSCIOUSNESS demonstrated by the HIDDEN OBSERVER EFFECT (one can behave as if deaf, but still respond to a question)

Jung, Carl

People are either INTROVERTS or EXTRAVERTS COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS - mental storehouse for Coliscious teas and images shared by all humans, such universal, "Created ARCHETYPES: a symbol or image such as demon, hero, nurturing mother Anima (female principle) & Animus (male principle) exist in everyone

Kinsey, Alfred

Wrote the KINSEY REPORI: a study on human sexuality

Kohlberg, Lawrence

Studied MORAL DEVELOPMENT in MEN PRECONVENTIONAL - Stage 1: punishment orientation

Stage 2: pleasure-seeking orientation CONVENTIONAL

Stage 3: Good boy/ good girl orientation

Stage 4: Authority orientation POSTCONVENTIONAL - Stage 5: social-contract orientation

Stage 6: Morality of individual principles Women felt his theory was sexist because women often make decisions based on caring, not just right or wrong

Kohler, Wolfgang

Insight Learning

Loftus, Elizabeth

MEMORY RESEARCH: Showed people a filmed automobile accident, asked how fast cars were going when they smashed or bumped or contacted, asked if they had seen broken glass in the film (there was none) to study the tendency of people to construct memories based on how they are questioned. Debunked repressed memory.

Lorenz, Konrad

Studied instinctive behavior in animals, such as IMPRINTING: the process of forming attachments during the CRITICAL PERIOD early in life. For example, ducklings followed the ball they saw right after birth, thinking it was their mother. CRITICAL PERIOD: a period shortly after birth when exposure to a certain stimuli produces proper development

Maslow, Abraham

Co-founder of Humanism, Hierarchy of NEEDS

Milgram, Stanely

OBEDIENCE STUDIES Two subiects ("teacher" and "learner") but the "learner" was actually an actor. The teacher was told to shock the learner every time they answered a question incorrectly to see how far they were willing to go. Two-thirds of people we willing to shock to the highest level.

Miller, George

Cognitive psychologist that determined that the short term memory consists of seven chunks of information (give or take two), lasts 30 sec

Pavlov, Ivan

Studied CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Paired a bell (neutral stimulus) with food (UCS) to make dogs salivate (UCR & CR)

Piaget, Jean

CHILD DEVELOPMENT occurs in stages: SENSORIMOTOR (senses, learns OBJECT PERMANENCE)

PRE-OPERATIONAL (EGO-CENTRISM, lacks logic)

CONCRETE OPERATIONAL (thinks logically about concrete events, learns CONSERVATION of matter)

FORMAL OPERATIONAL (has developed abstract reasoning)

Rescorla, Robert

RESCORLA-WAGNER MODEL is a model of CLASSICAL CONDITIONING in which the animal is theorized to learn from the discrepancy between what is expected to happen and what actually happens. Stated that the predictive value of a conditioned stimulus is critical, contingencies are important in conditioning.

Rogers, Carl

HUMANIST - NON-DIRECTIVE, CLIENT-CENTERED THERAPY. Emphasized the human capacity for inner peace and happiness (self-actualization). People need UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD: ample amounts of love and acceptance from others

Schachter, Stanley

Emotions are based on cognitions: emotion occurs when we apply a particular label to general physical arousal- we have to interpret our feelings

Seligman, Martin

LEARNED HELPLESSNESS: a psychological condition in which a human being or an animal has learned to act or behave helplessly in a particular situation (usually after experiencing some inability to avoid an adverse situation) even when it actually has the power to change its unpleasant or even harmful circumstance. PREPARED FEAR THEORY - we are prepared by evolution (predisposed to readily develop fears to certain biologically relevant stimuli, such as snakes, spiders and heights

Seyle, Hans

GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME: a series of bodily reactions to prolonged stress (ALARM, RESISTANCE, EXHAUSTION) Studied stress- the body responds in the same way to any stress (infection, failure, embarrassment, a new job, trouble at school etc.)

Skinner, B.F. (Burrhus F.)

Studied OPERANT CONDITIONING with rats and pigeons Created the Skinner Box and superstitious pigeons.

Spearman, Charles

Believed different cognitive test scores reflect a single intelligence which he called the G FACTOR. Used statistical analysis to quantify IQ

Sperry, Roger and Gazzaniga, Michael

Studied split brain patients who had their corpus callosum cut to stop seizures. Found that the left hemisphere controls speech, math and logic. The right hemisphere controls creativity, spatial reasoning, and perceptual tasks.

Sternberg, Robert

Developed the TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE - the three elements of intelligence being: ANALYTICAL intelligence (the ability to complete problem-solving tasks), CREATIVE intelligence (the ability to successfully deal with new and unusual situations) and PRACTICAL intelligence (the ability to adapt to everyday life by drawing on existing knowledge and skills) TRIANGULAR THEORY OF LOVE- love is made up of intimacy, passion and commitment which can combine to produce seven types of oise (romantic, liking, fatuous, infatuation, companionate, empty, consummate)

Terman, Lewis

Revised Binet's intelligence test to help create the Stanford-Binet Reciseence Scales for use in North America. Studies found high IQ children to be normal and happy.

Thorndike, Edward

LAW OF EFFECT - the probability of a response is altered by the effect it has. Acts that are reinforced tend to be repeated.

Tolman, Edward

LATENT LEARNING in rats with mazes. Demonstrated that rats that had explored a maze that contained food while they were not hungry were able to run it correctly on the first trial when they entered it having now been made hungry. The rats had learned COGNITIVE MAPS (mental maps) without trying to learn them.

Vygostsky, Lev

Importance of SPEECH in behavior. Children think aloud when young and then develop inner speech dialogues. ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT - the range of tasks a child cannot yet master alone but that he or she can accomplish with the guidance of a more capable partner. SCAFFOLDING: learning achievements build upon each other.

Washburn, Margaret Flog

First woman to receive a Ph.D. in Psychology.

Jones, Mary Cover and Watson, John

FOUNDED BEHAVIORISM - was a RADICAL BEHAVIORIST BABY ALBERT EXPERIMENT conditioned a child to fear rats/rabbits through CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Objected to the study of the mind or conscious experience, thought introspection was unscientific. Believed he could take a child and shape him into any type of person.

Weber, Ernest

Studied DIFFERENCE THRESHOLDS in sensations. WEBER'S LAW states that the just noticeable difference (ind) of the change in a stimulus's magnitude (e.g., small weights held in the hand) is proportional to the stimulus's magnitude (e.g., 5%), rather than being an absolute value.

Wechsler, David

Intelligence testing - developed the WECHSLER INTELLIGENCE SCALE

Wernicke, Carl

Found an area in the left hemisphere of the brain, now called WERNICKE'S AREA that controls VERBAL COMPREHENSION.

Wolpe, Joseph

Developed SYSTEMATIC DESENSITIZATION, a treatment that involves the imaginary exposure to a feared stimulus while simultaneously applying relaxation.

Wundt, Wilhem

Father of psychology- set up the first psychological laboratory to study conscious experience used Introspection.

Zimbardo, Philip

STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT (role playing) Students volunteered to play the roles of prisoners and guards, experiment had to be called off after 6 days, rather than the planned 2 weeks because the guards had become so sadistic that four of the ten prisoners suffered severe emotional issues.

Allport, Gordon

TRAIT THEORIST Central- the core traits that characterize an individual personality Secondary- traits that are inconsistent or relatively superficial [Cardinal- so basic that all of a person's activities relate to it

Berne, Eric

Transactional Analysis (TA) - has elements of cognitive, humanist, and psychoanalytic approaches Focuses on interactions and the internal ego states of parent, child, adult

Bowlby, John

Child development, maternal deprivation Attachment theory: Infants become upset and eventually withdrawn when separated from their families.

Cattel, James

First professor of psychology in the United States, helped establish psychology as a legitimate science

Cattel, Raymond

TRAIT THEORIST: FACTOR ANALYSIS 16 Trait Personality Inventory Surface traits appear in clusters, 16 source traits

Charcot, Jean-Martin

Founder of modern neurology, taught and influenced Freud

Dollard, John, and Miller Neal

Habits make up the structure of personality and are governed by drive, cue, response and reward

Ekman, Paul

UNIVERSAL EXPRESSIONS: Pioneer of the study of emotions and their relation to facial expressions. Developmental psychologist.

Eysenck, Hans

TRAIT THEORIST Big 3 Traits - melancholic(creative, introspective, and analytical), choleric(assertiveness, confidence, and a tendency to be task-oriented), phlegmatic(good listeners, patient, and empathetic towards others).

Frankl, Victor

Existential therapist Logotherapy- emphasized the need to find and maintain meaning in life.

Freud, Anna

Freud's daughter. Neo-Freudian, specialized in the treatment of children Disagreed with Freud's theories about women.

Gibson, Eleanor

VISUAL CLIFF, researched perceptual development in infants

Heider, Fritz

AITRIBUTION THEORIST, Gestalt (balance of the whole) BALANCE THEORY: people embrace attitudes compatible with their ideas and avoid attitudes contrary to their present views

Karen Horney

Neo-Freudian, believed SOCIAL rather than biological factors explained mental illness. We are motivated to SEARCH FOR LOVE. Among the first to challenge the obvious male bias in Freud's theories, also disagreed with his cause of anxiety- believed that people feel anxious because they feel isolated and helpless in a hostile world, believed causes are rooted in childhood

Hull, Clark

DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY: drives motivate people to act Also developed a mathematical theory of learning

Izard, Carroll

Isolated TEN BASIC EMOTIONS: joy, excitement, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, and guilt

Kagan, J

Studied child development. Showed face masks to 2-yr-olds and found they were fascinated when they saw faces with features in the wrong places