Psych 101: Sleep and Dreams

Wakefulness: awake and aware

Characterized by: ?

Beta waves, high frequency, low amplitude

Wakefulness: awake and relax/drowsy

Characterized by ?

• Alpha waves

• Lower frequency

• Increase in amplitude

• Synchronous pattern (i.e., wave pattern is more consistent)

State of transition between wakefulness and sleep

• Theta waves

• characterized by relatively rapidly, low amplitude

Sleep one stage

A sleep deeper than stage 1

• theta waves

• Characterized by a slower, more regular wave pattern

• Includes momentary interruptions of “sleep spindles” (sharply pointed/spikey waves)

stage two

the deepest stage of sleep, during which we are least responsive to outside stimulation

• delta waves (slowest moving brain waves)

Stage three

the period of sleep characterized by quick, back-and-forth eye movements

rapid eye movement (REM)

• Stage of sleep occupying 20% of an adult’s sleeping time.

• increased heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate.

• Major muscles of the body appear to be paralyzed.

• Usually accompanied by dreams (most vivid)

REM sleep

R E M-deprived sleepers spend significantly more time in REM sleep than normal

Rebound effect

____ sleep may play a role in learning and memory

• allows us to rethink and restore info and emotional experiences

REM

eliminating unnecessary information that accumulates throughout the day

Reserve learning

Sleep patterns differ between ___ and ____

men and women

Symptoms:

• Weariness, irritability, difficulty concentrating, loss of creativity, decline in logical reasoning ability.

Sleep deprivation

Sigmund Freud’s theory that dreams represent unconscious wishes that dreamers desire to see fulfilled

Unconscious wish fulfillment theory

For Freud, the _____ content what we remember and report—disguises the ______ content, our actual underlying wishes.

manifest/ latent

dreams permit information that is critical for our daily survival to be reconsidered and reprocessed during sleep.

Dreams for survival theory

Hobson’s theory that the brain produces random electrical energy during R E M sleep that stimulates memories stored in the brain.

Activation-synthesis theory

dreams are initiated in the brain’s pons, which sends random signals to the cortex

Activation information modulation (A I M) theory

the person has difficulty breathing while sleeping.

• Lack of oxygen triggers a waking response

• In infants, may play a role in sudden infant death syndrome, or S I D S

sleep apnea

sudden awakenings from non-REM sleep accompanied by extreme fear, panic, and strong physiological arousal.

• Are less common than nightmares.

• Occur most frequently in children between the ages of 3 and 8.

• Initially produces great agitation.

• Victims can usually get back to sleep fairly quickly

night terrors

uncontrollable sleeping for short periods while a person is awake.

narcolepsy

biological processes that occur regularly on approximately a 24-hour cycle

Circadian Rhythm

a severe depression that increases in the winter

Seasonal affective disorder

Most adults are at their cognitive peak in the mornings; but creativity sometimes increases in the evening.

Some health issues are more likely at certain times.

• ____ and ____ occur most frequently and are most severe between 6:00 a.m. and noon. ____ and ____ are more common during the evening hours.

Heart attacks/ strokes

Asthma attacks/ heartburn

Controlled by the brain’s suprachiasmatic nucleus (S C N)

Circadian rhythm

fantasies that people construct while awake.

• we are still experiencing waking consciousness; but our awareness of our environment declines.

Day dreams

Daydreaming may contain elements of ____ in which people talk to themselves in their heads.

Inner speech

a trancelike state of heightened susceptibility to the suggestions of others.

hypnosis

Four steps of hypnosis

• The person is made comfortable in a quiet environment.

• hypnotist explains what is going to happen.

• The hypnotist tells person to concentrate on a specific object or image, or on relaxing different parts of the body.

• The hypnotist makes suggestions the person interprets as being produced by hypnosis, and he or she becomes susceptible to further suggestions.

a division or dissociation of consciousness into two simultaneous components.

• In one, the person follows the commands of the hypnotist.

• In the other, he or she acts as a “hidden observer.”

divided consciousness

More recent approaches suggest the hypnotic state is a ____, neither totally different than nor totally similar to normal waking consciousness

continuum

a learned technique for refocusing attention that brings about an altered state of consciousness.

Meditation

repetition of a sound, word, or syllable

Mantra (used in meditation)

Long-term practice improves health because of the biological changes it produces:

• Decreased oxygen usage.

• Reduced heart rate and blood pressure.

• Change in brain-wave patterns.

• Different cultural practices and meditation

drugs that influence a person’s emotions, perceptions, and behavior.

psychoactive drugs

drugs that produce a biological or psychological dependence in the user.

addictive drugs

Body cannot function without drugs

biological drug addiction

people believe they need the drug to respond to daily stress

psychological drug dependence

drugs that have an arousal effect on the central nervous system

• Cause a rise in heart rate, blood pressure, and muscular tension.

• Ex: caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, methamphetamine, Adderall, bath salts, and cocaine.

Stimulants

drugs that slow down the nervous system.

• Small doses result in at least temporary feelings of intoxication—drunkenness—along with euphoria.

• With large doses, speech becomes slurred, motion becomes difficult, and users may lose consciousness.

• Ex: alcohol, barbiturates, and Rohypnol.

depressants

drugs that increase relaxation and relieve pain and anxiety.

• Ex: opiates (e.g., morphine, heroin, codeine) and opioids (e.g., Vicodin, Percocet, fentanyl, and OxyContin).

narcotics

drugs that are capable of producing alterations in perception, thoughts, and feelings.

• Ex: marijuana, MDMA (e.g., Ecstasy or Molly), and LSD

hallucinogens

such as those popularly known as speed, have several effects.

• In too large a quantity, convulsions and death can occur.

Amphetamines

a white, crystalline drug that produces a strong, lingering high.

• Long-term use can lead to brain damage.

Methamphetamine

was developed to help those who suffer from A D H D, but it is often abused.

adderall

its derivative crack, is rapidly absorbed into the body and takes effect almost immediately.

• Acts on the neurotransmitter dopamine.

• Can rewire the brain and create psychological and physical addiction.

• Over time, users deteriorate mentally and physically.

cocaine

The most common depressant is _____, used by more people than is any other drug.

One trend is the high frequency of ______.

Alcohol; binge drinking

a form of central nervous system depressant.

• produce a sense of relaxation and are frequently prescribed by physicians.

• At larger doses, they produce altered thinking, faulty judgment, and sluggishness.

• When combined with alcohol, they can be deadly.

Barbiturates

“date rape drug” because when mixed with alcohol, it can prevent resistance to assault.

• Sometimes people given the drug have no memory of the assault.

Rohypnol

drugs that increase relaxation and relieve pain and anxiety.

• Two of the most powerful are morphine and heroin, both derived from the poppy seed pod.

narcotics

____ refers to narcotics derived from natural substances—morphine, heroin, and codeine.

Opiates

_____ refers to synthetic narcotics—Vicodin, Percocet, fentanyl, and OxyContin.

Opioids

a synthetic chemical that satisfies a heroin user’s biological cravings without the “high.”

methadone

drugs that are capable of producing alterations in perception, thoughts, and feelings.

hallucinogens

______ is the most common hallucinogen in widespread use today.

marijuana

produces feelings of increased energy, euphoria, and empathy; but may contribute to memory and intellectual problems.

MDMA (ecstasy or Molly)

produces vivid hallucinations and is one of the most powerful mind-altering chemicals.

LSD

a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience

Learning

Infants exhibit a simple type of learning called _____—the decrease in response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus.

Habituation

a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response.

Classical conditioning

a stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest.

Neutral stimulus (NS)

naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned.

Unconditioned stimulus (U C S):

is natural and needs no training.

Unconditioned response (U C R)

a once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

• Brings about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned stimulus (C S)Conditioned response (C R): a response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus.

a response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus.

Conditioned response (C R)

John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner (19 20) developed a case study of “Little Albert.”

• Produced ______, using ethically questionable procedures that could never be used today.

conditioned fear

Classical conditioning can lead to the development of

phobias, PTSD, positive experiences such as a song bringing back memories

a basic learning phenomenon that occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and disappears.

extinction

the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning.

spontaneous recovery

a process in which after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same response.

• The greater the similarity between two stimuli, the greater the likelihood of stimulus generalization.

Stimulus generalization

the process that occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another.

• One evokes a conditioned response, but the other does not.

• provides the ability to differentiate between stimuli.

Stimulus discrimination

a learning psychologist, found that some organisms were biologically prepared to quickly learn to avoid foods that smelled or tasted like something that made them sick

John Garcia; learned taste aversion could even occur

learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on the response’s favorable or unfavorable consequences

Operant conditioning

Unlike classical conditioning, operant conditioning applies to ______ ______ that an organism performs deliberately

voluntary responses

B. F. Skinner developed the _____: a chamber with a highly controlled environment, used to study operant conditioning with laboratory animals.

For example, a hungry rat is taught to press a lever in the Skinner box.

Skinner box

• At first, it accidentally presses the lever as it explores its environment—and it receives a food pellet.

• It will not learn the connection the first time.

• Sooner or later it presses the lever again, and in time the frequency of the pressing response increases.

Skinner box experiment

the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated.

Reinforcement

any stimulus that increases the probability that a proceeding behavior will be repeated

reinforcer

a ____ ____ satisfies some biological need and works naturally, regardless of previous experience

• for ex: food for a hungry person

primary reinforcer

A ____ ____ becomes reinforcing because of its association w a primary reinforcer

Secondary reinforcer

a stimulus added to the environment rat brings about an increase in a preceding response

• ex: paycheck that workers get at the end of the week

positive reinforcer

an unpleasant stimulus whose removal leafs to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated

• For example, if you have an itchy rash that is relieved when you apply a certain brand of ointment.

Negative reinforcer

a stimulus that decreases the probability that s previous behavior will occur again

Punishment

____ ____ weakens a response through the application of an unpleasant stimulus

• ex: spanking

Positive punishment

_____ weakens a response through the removal of something pleasant

• ex: taking way video games from a kid so they stop making bad grades

Negative punishment

Pros of punishment

• appropriate for dangerous behaviors; hitting his for playing w knife

• temporary suppression provides an opportunity to reinforce more desirable behaviors; playing w a toy instead of knife

Cons of punishment

• Frequently ineffective.

• Punished behavior may be replaced by even less desirable behavior.

• Physical punishment can
  cause harm.

• Fear, lowered self-esteem.

pattern of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior

schedule of reinforcement

reinforcing of a behavior every time it occurs

continuous reinforcement schedule

Reinforcing of a behavior some but not all of the time

Partial (or intermittent) reinforcement schedule

Partial reinforcement schedules maintain performance longer than do continuous reinforcement schedules before _____ occurs.

extinction

reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made

• For example, going to class all week and going out as a reward

Fixed-ratio schedule

Reinforcement occurs after an average number os responses, but the reinforcement schedule is unpredictable

Variable-ratio schedule

reinforcement is provided for a response only after a fixed time period has elapsed.

• For example, before the timer goes off, you find yourself checking the cookies, over and over.

Fixed interval schedule

the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed.

• For example, pop quizzes and random drug testing.

The crucial factor in both is the amount of time that has elapsed since the reward.

Variable- interval schedule

behavior reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus, but not in its absence.

Stimulus control training

A ____ _____ signals the likelihood that reinforcement will follow a response.

Discriminative stimulus

the process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

• Start by reinforcing any behavior similar to the behavior you want the person to learn.

• Later, you reinforce only responses that are closer to the behavior you ultimately want to teach.

• Finally, you reinforce only the desired response.

Shaping

a technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones

Behavior modification

_____ steps:

• Identify goals and target behaviors.

• Design a data-recording system and record preliminary data.

• Select a behavior-change strategy.

• Implement the program.

• Keep careful records after the program is implemented.

• Evaluate and alter the ongoing program.

Behavior modification