PSYC 201 Final Review

10 Points of the Nuremburg Code

1. Voluntary consent is essential
2. Experiment should yield fruitful results
3. anticipated results should justify the experiment
4. experiment should avoid all unnessessary physical and mental suffering and injury
5. experiment should not be conducted if there is a reason to belief death or disabiling will occur
6. risk should not outweigh the humanitarian importance for the research
7. proper preparations and facilities should be made to ensure safety
8. experiment should only be conducted by scientifically qualified persons
9. human subjects can terminate the experiment when they need to
10. Scientist can terminate the experiment if they believe the risks have exceeded the benefits

3 Aspects of a Research Study (decisions to be made)

* Group vs individual
* Same indiviuals vs different individuals
* Number of variables included

3 R’s in Animal Research

* Replacement (non animal options when possible)
* Reduction (use fewer animals)
* Refinement (modify to reduce pain/distress)

3 types of generalization

* from sample to general population
* from one research study to another
* from research study to real-world situation

A hypothesis shows:

* A relationship exists
* A cause + effect explanation
* Limitations fer relationship
* Relationship depends an definition of variables

Accessible population

local clients or sample that the researcher can access easily

active deception

commission

Anonymity

the practice of ensuring that an individual's name is not directly associated with the information or measurements obtained from that individual

APA Citation Structure

Author’s surname, initial(s). (Date Published). Title of source. Location of publisher: publisher. Retrieved from URL.

APA ethics code

* No Harm
* privacy and confidentiality
* institutional approval
* competence
* record keeping
* informed consent
* dipensing informed consent only when research will create no harm or where otherwise permitted
* No or small inducements
* Little to no deception
* Debriefing
* BENEFIT MUST OUTWEIGH HARM

APA Guidelines

* No harm
* Informed consent
* Deception may be allowed
* Confidentiality
* Benefits both participant and researcher

Applied Questions

seeks to identify solutions to current problems

Applied Research

intended to answer practical questions or solve practical problems.

Apprehensive subject role

these participants are overly concerned that their performance in the study will be used to evaluate their abilities or personal characteristics. Try to place themselves in a desirable light by responding in a socially desirable fashion instead of honestly. (Not ideal because results are not accurate)

Aquiencence bias

participant tends to agree with all statements

argument

set of premise statements that are logically combined to yield to a conclusion

Assumptions about Ethical Codes

* Research benefits society
* People are willing to participate
* Respects and protects participants

Basic Questions

aim to increase our scientific understanding of phenomena

Basic Research

research studies intended to answer theoretical questions or rather knowledge simply for the sake of new knowledge.

between groups design

Participation is randomly assigned to the study conditions

between-subjects experimental design

Requires a separate, independent group of individuals for each treatment condition. As a result, the data for a between-subjects design contain only one score for each participant. To qualify as an experiment, the design must satisfy all other requirements of the experimental research strategy, such as manipulation of an independent variable and control of extraneous variables.

Carry-over effects

Occur when one treatment condition produces a change in the participants that affects their scores in subsequent treatment conditions

Ceiling effect

the clustering of scores at a high end of a measurement scale, allowing little or no possibility of increases in value

Characteristics of a good hypothesis

* Logical
* Testable – all of the variables, events, and individuals can be defined and observed
* Refutable – can be demonstrated to be false.
* Possible for the outcome to be different than the prediction
* Positive

Cluster sampling

a probability sampling method in which you divide a population into clusters, such as districts or schools, and then randomly select some of these clusters as your sample

cohort effects/Generation effects

environmental factors that differentiate one age group from another caused by unique characteristics or experiences other than age

Cohorts

individuals who are the same age and have lived in similar environments

Common sources of research ideas

* Scholarly literature
* modify an existing study
* discussion section at research report
* personal interests / curiosities
* casual observations
* practical problems / questions
* behavioural theories

compensatory equalization

An untreated group learns about the treatment being received by another group and demands the same or equal treatment.

Compensatory rivalry

The untreated group works extra hard to show that they can perform just as well as the individuals receiving the special treatment.

Concurrent validity

demonstrated when scores obtained from a new measure are directly related to scores obtained from an established measure of the same variable

Confidentiality

the practice of keeping strictly secret and private the information or measurements obtained from an individual during a research study.

Confounding variable

an extraneous variable that changes systematically along with the two variables being studied. Produces an alternative explanation for the observed relationship (threat to internal validity)

Construct validity

requires that the scores obtained from a measurement procedure behave exactly the same as the variable itself. Construct validity is based on many research studies that use the same measurement procedure and grows gradually as each new study contributes to more evidence

Constructs

hypothetical attributes or mechanisms that help explain and predict behavior in a theory

Control condition

the condition in which the treatment is not administered

Convenience sampling

researchers simply use as participants those individuals who are easiest to get. This is the most comply used sampling method

Convergent validity

demonstrated by a strong relationship between the scores obtained from 2 or more different methods of measuring the same construct

Correlational Research Strategy

Only attempts to describe the relationship, not explain itEach variable is measured with numerical scores

counterbalancing

defined as changing the order in which treatment conditions are administered from one participant to another so that the treatment conditions are matched with respect to time. The goal is to use every possible order of treatments with an equal number of individuals participating in each sequence. The purpose of \_______ is to eliminate the potential for confounding by disrupting any systematic relationship between the order of treatments and time-related factors.

Cross-sectional developmental research design

uses different groups of individuals, each group representing a different age. Groups are measures at one point and compared

Curvilinear Relationship

consistent, preictable relationship between two variables but with a curved line

debriefing

a post-experimental explanation of the purpose of a study that is given to a participant, especially if deception was used.

deception

occurs when a researcher purposefully withholds information or misleads participants with regard to information about a study.

deductive reasoning

uses a general statement as basis for reaching a conclusion about specific

Demand characteristics

refer to any of the potential cues or features of a study that (1) suggest to the participants what the purpose and hypothesis is and (2) influence the participants to respond or behave in a certain way

Dependent variable

Variable observed for changes to assess the effect of manipulating the independent variable

Descriptive Research Strategy

Focusses on individual variablesIntended to answer questions about the specific state of individual variables for a specific group of individuals

Developmental research designs

used to examine changes in behaviour related to age

Difference between Correlational and Non-experimental research

* Correlational: 1 group, 2 variables
* Non-Experimental: 2 groups, 1 variable

Differential attrition

Refers to differences in attrition rates from one group to another and can threaten the internal validity of a between-subjects experiment

Differential effects

effects differ from one group to another. Can be a confounding variable and threaten internal validity

Differential Research Design

* study that compares preexisting group
* No random assignment (participants are assigned according to participant characteristics)
* Nonexperimental
* Goal is to see if the scores for one group are consistently different from the scores of another

Diffusion

refers to the spread of the treatment from the experimental group to the control group, which tends to reduce the difference between the two conditions

Directionality problem

the existence of a relationship does not always explain the direction of the relationship

Discussion section

Restates the hypothesis; summarizes the results; and then presents a discussion of the interpretation, implications, and possible applications of the results.

Distinction between non-experimental and quasi-experimental design

* Nonexperimental: little or no attempt to control threats to internal validity
* Quasi-experimental: attempt to limit threats to internal validity

Divergent validity

demonstrated by showing little or no relationship between the measurements of two different constructs

Double-blind

both the researcher and the participants are unaware of the predicted outcome

Double-blind and Single-Blind studies

minimize the potential for experimenter bias

empirical method

uses observation or direct sensory experience to obtain knowledge

Ethical principles dictate:

* Measurements and techniques
* Selection of participants
* Strategies used in certain populations and behaviors
* Design used in certain populations and behaviors
* How studies are carried out
* How data is analyzed
* How results are reported

Eugenics

* believed that they could perfect human beings and eliminate so-called social ills through genetics and heredity
* encouraged successful people to bear children together, discourage ‘inferior’ people from bearing children
* became forced sterilization worldwide
* formally ended 1972
* indigenous women coerced until 2017

event

outside occurance not manipulated or controlled by the researcher

Experimental condition

conditions in which the treatment is administered

Experimental realism

The psychological aspects of the simulation

Experimental Research Strategy

* Answer cause-and-effect questions about the relationship between two variables
* Conducted with rigourous control to ensure unambiguous demonstration

Experimental Research Strategy Elements

* Manipulation: Researcher manipulates one variable to create a set of two or more treatment conditions
* Measurement: Second variable is measured to obtain a set of scores in each treatment condition
* Comparison: Scores in one condition are compared to the scores in another. Consistent differences mean that the manipulation caused the changes
* Control: All other variables are controlled to ensure they do not influence the variables being examined

Experimenter Bias

Experimenters expectations or personal beliefs influence the findings of a study

Experimenter bias

occurs when the measurements obtained in a study are influenced by the experimenters expectations or personal beliefs regarding the outcome of the study

External validity

the extent to which we can generalize the results of a research study to people, settings, times, measures, and characteristics other than those used in the study

Extraneous variables

All variables in the study other than the independent and dependent variables

Face validity

Unscientific form of validity demonstrated when a measurement procedure superficially appears to measure what it claims to measure

Faithful subject role

these participants attempt to follow instructions to the letter and avoid acting on any suspicions they have about the purpose of the study. Two types of participants take on this role: those who want to help science and know they should not allow their suspicion to enter their responses, and those who are simply apathetic and did not give the study much though. (These are the ideal participants!)

Field

a place that the participant or subject perceives as a natural environment

Field study

research conducted in a place the participants percieve as the natural environment

five categories of time related threats

* History
* Instrumentation
* Order Effects
* Maturation
* Statistical regression

Floor effect

clustering of scores at the low end of a measurement scale, allowing little or no possibility of decreases in value

Francis Galton

* Cousin of Darwin
* studied individual differences
* believed intellegence is inborn
* Coined “eugenics”

Fraud

the explicit effort of a researcher to falsify or misrepresent data

Good subject role

participants that have identified the hypothesis of the study and are trying to produce responses that support the investigators hypothesis. (Not ideal for results)

History

When a group of individuals is being tested in a series of treatment conditions, any outside event(s) that influences the participants’ scores in one treatment differently than in another treatment is called the \___ effect. \_______ is a threat to internal validity because any differences that are observed between treatment conditions may be caused by history instead of the treatments.

Humans can… Animals cannot…

* give/refuse informed consent
* choose to withdraw


* verbalize discomfort level

Humans cannot… Animals can…

be sacrificed for research purposes

hypothesis

statement that describes a relationship between or among variable: A proposal not final answer

Impact Factor

measure of the frequency with which the average article in a journal has been cited in a particular year

important times for a manipulation check

* Participant manipulations
* subtle manipulations
* placebo controls
* Simulations

In a true experiment…

the researcher must manipulate an independent variable while controlling all variables other than independent + dep. variables

Independent variable

Variable manipulated by the researcher

individual differences threat

create a confound whenever the assignment procedure produces groups that have different participant characteristics

inductive reasoning

using a small set of specific observations as basis for forming a general statements about larger set possible observations

Informed consent is:

verbal assent in childrenconsent from adults/parentsnot about agecapacity to make an informed decision requires the investigator to provide all available information about a study so that an individual can make a rational, informed decision to participate in the study.

Instrumentation

Refers to changes in the measuring instrument that occur during a research study in which participants are measured in a series of treatment conditions. Instrumentation is a threat to internal validity because any observed differences between treatment conditions may be caused bu changes in the measuring instrument instead of the treatments.

Inter-rater reliability

the degree of agreement between two observers who simultaneously record measurements of the behaviors

Internal validity

produces a single, unambiguous explanation for the relationship betweeen two variables

Interrupted time-series design

intervening event is not manipulated by the researcher

Laboratory

any setting that is obviously devoted to the discipline of science. It can be any room or any space that the subject or participant perceives as artificial.

Lead researcher responsibility

in charge of decision makingmust be competentresponsible for team behaviour

Levels

Different values of the independent variable

Linear Relationship

Data points produced by the changing values of two variables form a straight-line pattern