Key U.S. History Events and Concepts: Exploration to Missouri Compromise

Christopher Columbus

An Italian explorer funded by Spain's Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand who sailed west across the Atlantic in 1492 in search of a new trade route to Asia.

Cahokia

A large, pre-Columbian Native American city that was a major urban center of the Mississippian culture, known for its large earthen mounds.

Requierimiento

A document read to Native Americans by Spanish conquistadors demanding their conversion to Christianity and submission to Spanish rule.

Treaty of Tordesillas

An agreement between Spain and Portugal to divide the newly discovered lands outside of Europe, establishing a line of demarcation to prevent conflict.

Bartolome de las Casas

A Spanish historian and social reformer who was a vocal critic of the brutal treatment of Native Americans by Spanish colonists.

New Laws of 1542

A set of laws aimed at reforming the encomienda system to end the brutal exploitation of Native Americans, although they were largely unenforceable.

Columbian Exchange

The widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and ideas between the Americas and the Old World.

John Locke

An English philosopher and physician known for developing the theory of natural rights and the idea of a social contract.

House of Burgesses

The first legislative assembly of elected representatives in North America, established in the Virginia Colony.

Virginia Massacre

A violent conflict between Native Americans and English settlers in Virginia, resulting in significant casualties.

Mayflower Compact

An agreement made by the Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower to establish a government and abide by its rules for the good of the colony.

Puritanism

A religious reform movement that arose within the Church of England, advocating for a simpler form of worship and strict moral code.

Magna Carta

A charter signed in 1215 that limited the powers of the king and laid the foundation for modern democracy and legal rights.

Bacon's Rebellion

A rebellion in 1676 led by Nathaniel Bacon against the rule of Governor William Berkeley in Virginia, highlighting tensions between settlers and Native Americans.

Indentured Servitude

A labor system where individuals worked for a set number of years in exchange for passage to America and eventual freedom.

Seven Years War/French and Indian War

A global conflict over colonial dominance and territory fought between Great Britain and its American colonists against France and its Native American allies, primarily for control of the Ohio River Valley.

Sugar Act

A tax law passed by the British Parliament that taxed molasses.

Stamp Act

A tax law passed by the British Parliament that taxed printed materials.

Tea Act

A law passed by the British Parliament that granted a monopoly to the British East India Company.

Coercive Acts

A series of punitive measures passed by the British Parliament in response to the Boston Tea Party, which included closing the port of Boston and restricting colonial governance.

Somerset v. Stewart

A landmark English court case where Lord Mansfield ruled that chattel slavery was not supported by English common law, allowing James Somerset to be free.

"Join or Die"

A political cartoon by Benjamin Franklin depicting a snake cut into eight pieces, representing different American colonies, created to encourage unity against the French and Native American allies.

First Continental Congress

A meeting of delegates from twelve of the thirteen American colonies in response to the Coercive Acts, where they agreed to boycott British goods and drafted a declaration of colonial rights.

Articles of Confederation

The first government of the United States, which created a weak central government with limited powers, leading to its failure and replacement by the Constitution.

Lord Dunmore's Proclamation

A proclamation by Lord Dunmore, the Royal Governor of Virginia, offering freedom to enslaved people who joined the British forces.

Declaration of Independence

The document adopted by the Second Continental Congress declaring the thirteen American colonies independent from British rule.

Battle of Saratoga

A significant battle in the American Revolutionary War that marked a turning point in favor of the American forces.

Battle of Yorktown

The last major battle of the American Revolutionary War, where British General Cornwallis surrendered to American and French forces.

Thomas Paine's Common Sense

A pamphlet published by Thomas Paine advocating for independence from Britain and the establishment of a democratic republic.

Continental Army

The army formed by the colonies during the American Revolutionary War, led by General George Washington.

NJ/Virginia Plan

Two competing proposals for the structure of the new US government, with the Virginia Plan favoring large states and the New Jersey Plan favoring small states.

Connecticut Compromise

An agreement that resolved the conflict between the Virginia and New Jersey Plans, establishing a bicameral legislature.

3/5ths Compromise

An agreement to count three-fifths of a state's enslaved population for the purposes of determining representation in the House of Representatives and for taxation.

The Federalist Papers

A series of 85 essays arguing in favor of the new United States Constitution and urging its ratification.

The Constitution

The supreme law of the United States that established the three branches of the federal government and defined their powers.

Shay's Rebellion

An armed uprising by farmers protesting high taxes and debt collection, highlighting the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation.

The Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the United States Constitution that guarantee fundamental rights and freedoms.

Haitian Revolution

A successful slave revolt that led to the establishment of the independent nation of Haiti, the only successful slave rebellion in history to result in a sovereign state.

Federalist

Supporters of the US Constitution and a strong central government who advocated for its ratification.

Anti-Federalists

Opponents of the US Constitution who feared the power of the new federal government and argued it gave too much power to the national government.

Hamilton's Economic Plan

A comprehensive plan to stabilize the US economy and establish the nation's financial credibility, including assuming state debts, creating a national bank, and implementing a protective tariff.

Whiskey Rebellion

An armed protest by farmers in western Pennsylvania against a new federal excise tax on whiskey, seen as an unfair burden.

Revolution of 1800

The presidential election where Thomas Jefferson defeated John Adams, marking the first peaceful transfer of power between opposing political parties in US history.

The Alien and Sedition Acts

A series of four laws passed in 1798 that made it more difficult for immigrants to become citizens and allowed prosecution of individuals who criticized the government.

Marbury vs. Madison

A landmark Supreme Court case where Chief Justice John Marshall established the principle of judicial review, allowing the Supreme Court to declare a law unconstitutional.

Louisiana Purchase

The acquisition of a vast territory from France that doubled the size of the United States, secured the port of New Orleans, and opened new territory for expansion.

Embargo Act of 1807

A law that banned all American ships from sailing to foreign ports, intended to pressure Great Britain and France to respect American neutrality.

War of 1812

A military conflict between the United States and Great Britain.

American Colonization Society

An organization founded to transport free African Americans to a colony in Africa, which would become the nation of Liberia.

Missouri Compromise

A federal law that regulated slavery in the western territories, admitting Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, while prohibiting slavery north of the 36°30′ parallel in the Louisiana Territory.

Election of 1824

A presidential election where none of the candidates won a majority of the electoral college, leading to John Quincy Adams being chosen as president by the House of Representatives despite Andrew Jackson winning the popular vote.

Election of 1828

A highly contentious presidential election that resulted in a decisive victory for Andrew Jackson, marking the rise of the 'common man' in politics and the beginning of the Jacksonian Era.

Erie Canal

A man-made waterway that connected the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean via the Hudson River, dramatically reducing shipping costs and travel time.

Populism

A political approach that appeals to the concerns of the common people, often pitting the 'people' against a corrupt or elitist establishment.

William Lloyd Garrison

A prominent American abolitionist and journalist, founder of The Liberator, who demanded the immediate and uncompensated emancipation of all enslaved people.

Second Great Awakening

A religious revival movement led by a new generation of Protestant ministers and religious reformers.

Temperance Movement

A social movement aimed at reducing or prohibiting the consumption of alcoholic beverages.

Wage Labor

A system of economic production where workers are paid wages for their labor, often contrasted with slavery or indentured servitude.

Nat Turner's Rebellion

A slave rebellion led by Nat Turner in 1831, which resulted in a significant number of deaths and heightened fears of slave insurrections.

Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831)

A Supreme Court case where the Cherokee Nation sought to protect their land and sovereignty, but the court ruled it did not have jurisdiction.

Worcester v. Georgia (1832)

A Supreme Court case where the court ruled that the state of Georgia had no right to enforce state laws in Cherokee territory, recognizing the Cherokee Nation as a sovereign entity.

Nullification Crisis

A political crisis where South Carolina declared federal tariffs null and void within its borders, arguing that a state had the right to nullify a federal law it deemed unconstitutional.

Bank War

A political struggle in the 1830s between President Andrew Jackson and supporters of the Second Bank of the United States.

Panic of 1837

A financial crisis in the United States that led to a severe economic depression.

Indian Removal Act

A law passed in 1830 that authorized the forced removal of Native American tribes from their ancestral lands.

Wilmot Proviso

A proposal to ban slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico as a result of the Mexican-American War, which intensified sectional tensions.

Mexican-American War

A military conflict fought over the disputed border of Texas, instigated by President James K. Polk, resulting in significant territorial gains for the US.

Frederick Douglass

A formerly enslaved man and influential abolitionist speaker who escaped slavery and became the editor of The North Star.

Free Soil Movement

A political movement opposed to the expansion of slavery into western territories, emphasizing 'Free Soil, Free Speech, Free Labor, and Free Men.'

William Henry Harrison

The ninth President of the United States who served the shortest presidential term in US history, dying just 31 days into his term.

Texas Annexation

The process by which the independent Republic of Texas was incorporated into the United States as a new state.

Zachary Taylor

A career army officer and the twelfth President of the United States, elected as a member of the Whig Party and known for his moderate stance on slavery.

Manifest Destiny

The belief that the United States was divinely ordained to expand westward across the North American continent to the Pacific Ocean.

Compromise of 1850

A package of five separate bills passed to defuse a political confrontation between slave and free states over the status of new territories acquired from Mexico.

Kansas-Nebraska Act

A law that created the territories of Kansas and Nebraska and allowed their residents to decide whether to allow slavery within their borders through popular sovereignty.

Dred Scott v. Sandford

A landmark Supreme Court case ruling that enslaved or formerly enslaved persons were not citizens and had no right to sue in federal court.

Republican Party

A political party founded on the core principle of opposing the expansion of slavery into the western territories.

John Brown

A radical abolitionist who led a violent raid on the federal armory at Harpers Ferry, Virginia, hoping to seize weapons and arm a slave rebellion.

Election of 1860

The presidential election that resulted in the victory of Abraham Lincoln, triggering the secession of Southern states from the Union.

Abolitionist

Who: Individuals who sought the end of slavery.

What: A social and political movement that called for the immediate and total end of slavery throughout the United States.

Where: The United States, particularly in the North.

Why: They believed slavery was a moral abomination and a violation of human rights. Their efforts, through political action, pamphlets, and public speeches, brought the issue of slavery to a national crisis and ultimately led to the Civil War.

Abraham Lincoln

central figure, making the policies that drove the war. His appointments (like Grant) and executive actions (like the Emancipation Proclamation) created the framework for Union victory and abolition.

Emancimation Proclamation

This executive order, issued by Lincoln, fundamentally changed the war's purpose. Crucially, it authorized the enrollment of Black men into t

The Draft/Conscription

Enacted to address the dire need for manpower after heavy losses. While unpopular, it forced white men into the army, working alongside the recruitment of the USCT to provide Grant with the massive number of soldiers needed to win.

United States Colored Troops (USCT) (Formalized)

Formed as a direct consequence of the Emancipation Proclamation. The USCT provided nearly 200,000 soldiers, proving their value in combat and ensuring the manpower pool (along with the Draft) that General Grant later relied on.

Battle of Gettysburg

A decisive Union victory and a major turning point. It crushed the Confederacy's final major invasion of the North, providing the essential morale and momentum that allowed Lincoln to finalize his war aims and later appoint a general like Grant who could finish the job.

Ulysses S. Grant (Appointed General-in-Chief)

Appointed by Lincoln after the failures of previous generals. Grant used the massive manpower available (from the Draft and the USCT) to implement his relentless strategy of "total war," which ultimately forced Robert E. Lee's surrender.

13th Amendment (Ratified)

The final legal action that officially and permanently ended slavery throughout the entire United States. It was the constitutional fulfillment of the promise of freedom made by the Emancipation Proclamation, secured only by the military victory led by Grant.