Reproductions and Bioethics - AOS 2&3 - CH 1 & 9 - VCE Biology Flashcards

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53 Terms

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Genetic Diversity

The amount of genetic variation that exists between individuals.

  • Measured by reference to a population’s gene pool

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Gene Pool

The sum of all the different alleles in a population

Diverse gene pool = Greater variety of genotypes and phenotypes (genetic diversity)

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Examples of Environmental Changes

New predator species, temperature changes, new diseases

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Importance of High Genetic Diversity

Populations with a greater genetic diversity (number of alleles in gene pool) are more likely to have alleles that are already well adapted to survive new environmental challenges

 Therefore, the larger the gene pool, the greater that population's resilience to environmental change.

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Disadvantages of Low Genetic Diversity

  • Reduced adaptability to adverse environmental conditions due to the lack of different alleles in a gene pool, which makes a population more likely to enter extinction

  • Increased susceptibility to disease

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Sexual Reproduction (Definition and what it entails)

  • Involves the contribution of genetic material from two parents

  • Two haploid gametes fuse, via fertilisation, to form a genetically unique organism

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Examples of Sexual Reproduction

Oviparity

  • When eggs are laid by the female and the embryo develops outside of the mother’s body (Egg hatching)

    Ex. Snakes

Vivaparity

  • When the embryo develops within the mother’s body (Live-bearing)

    Ex. Humans

Angiosperms

  • Plants that fertilise via pollination

    Ex. Daffodils

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Advantages of Sexual Reproduction

  • Increases genetic diversity of a population by allowing for recombinant, genetically unique offspring

  • Improves resistance to environmental changes by promoting the presence of different allele combinations

  • Reduces the risk of offspring inheriting a genetic disorder that might be carried by one parent.

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Disadvantages if Sexual Reproduction

  • Requires time

  • Requires lots of energy and resources

  • Requires a mate/partner

  • Risk of losing offspring to outside influences such as embryo damage

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Asexual Reproduction

Offspring formed from a single parent.

The offspring is a clone of the parent (genetically identical to one another)

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Examples of Asexual Reproduction

  • Vegetative Propagation

  • Fragmentation

  • Budding

  • Binary Fission

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Advantages of Asexual Reproduction

  • Populations grow exponentially fast in comparison to sexually reproducing animals (Reproduce faster)

  • Organisms that have adapted a phenotype that is fined tuned to survive in a particular environment are all identical

  • Does not require a mate to reproduce, and therefore the organism does not need to be mobile

  • Requires very little parental investment/energy

  • Removes the need to protect fragile offspring

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Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction

  • Low genetic diversity and therefore higher susceptibility to being wiped out by a new environmental change

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Difference between sexual and asexual reproduction

Sexual

  • Involves the contribution of genetic material from 2 parents

  • Offspring is genetically unique

Asexual

  • Involves the contribution of genetic material from 1 parent

  • Offspring is genetically identical (clone) to the parent

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Clone

Genetically identical organisms

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Somatic Cell

A body cell other than a sex cell

  • Diploid (2n)

    Ex. Skin cell

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Haploid

Describes a single set of chromosomes in a cell

  • Noted by n

  • Only found in gametes

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Diploid

Describes two sets of chromosomes in a cell (one from each parent)

  • Somatic cells

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How are offspring produced via sexual reproduction genetically unique?

Due to the mixing of genetic material from two parents during fertilisation, which leads to a unique combination of genes in the offspring. The gametes used in fertilisation contain a single set of chromosomes and are a unique combination of genes (Unique genetic make-up) due to the exchange of maternal and paternal alleles during independent assortment and crossing over in meiosis.

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Nucleus

A cell organelle that contains genetic information (DNA) and controls cellular functions

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Stem Cell

Undifferentiated cell with the capability of differentiating into specialised body cells

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Cloning

Process of creating a genetically identical copy of an organism

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SCNT

Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer

Process of cloning an organism by transferring the nucleus of a somatic cell into an enucleated egg cell

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Steps in the SCNT Process

Step 1 : Enucleation

  • The removal of a haploid nucleus from a donated egg cell, producing an enucleated egg

Step 2 : Extraction

  • The diploid nucleus of a donated somatic cell is extracted

Step 3: Insertion

  • The diploid nucleus of the donated somatic cell is inserted into the enucleated egg cell

Step 4: Development

  • The egg is implanted into the uterus of a surrogate mother and the pregnancy continues as normal. The surrogate will give birth to a clone of the somatic cell donor

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Benefits of Cloning in Agriculture

Can involve both crops and livestock

  • Slow growing plants can be produced in large numbers

  • Organisms can be produced year-round

  • Organisms with desirable traits can be produced

    (eg. Disease resistant plants or low fat milk)

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Disadvantages of Cloning in Agriculture

  • No genetic variation in offspring, therefore decreased ability to adapt to environmental conditions

  • Disease can spread rapidly through crops and wipe them out quickly

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Bioethical Considerations Regarding SCNT Cloning

  • Very high failure rate

    May be due to insufficient nuclear programming as the donor nucleus goes from directing an adult somatic cell to directing a new embryo

  • Very expensive (hundreds of thousands of dollars)

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Therapeutic Cloning

Involves the cloning of particular tissues for medical benefit in humans

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2 type of stem cells

Embryonic and Adult

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Embryonic Stem Cells

Stem cells that come from a human embryo and are pluripotent, meaning that they can differentiate into almost any cell type

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Adult Stem Cells

Stem cells that come from bone marrow and are multipotent, meaning that they can only differentiate into a limited number of specialised cells

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Totipotent Vs Pluripotent Vs Multipotent

Totipotent - Can differentiate into any cell type

Pluripotent - Can differentiate into almost any cell type

Multipotent - Can differentiate into a limited number of cell types

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Process of Extracting Embryonic Stem Cells

  • Follows process of SCNT

  • Instead of implanting the embryo into the uterus of a surrogate mother, the embryonic stem cells are harvested and grown (cultured) in a lab.

  • After harvest, the embryonic stem cells are forced to differentiate into the cell type required for treatment

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Why are embryonic stem cells better than adult stem cells?

No tissue rejection

Since the cell is created using the patient’s own DNA, it does not cause tissue rejection because the antigens on the cell surface match the patients cells which does not trigger an immune response

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Advantages of Therapeutic Cloning

  • Replacement for conventional medical treatments such as organ transplants an d skin grafts

  • Can treat previously untreatable diseases

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Disadvantages of Therapeutic Cloning

  • Low success rate during the creation of an embryo

  • Very expensive treatment which could require multiple rounds/trials

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Bioethical Issues Regarding Therapeutic Cloning

  • Can be considered as “playing with God”

  • Concerns raised by religious/moral groups around the creation and destruction of an embryo. Doubts about the “status” of the embryo” as a potential life.

  • Very expensive

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What are the “Ethical Approaches”

  • Consequences-based approach

  • Duty/Rules-based approach

  • Virtues-based approach

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Consequences-Based Approach

Whereby the right action is the one which leads to the best overall consequences or outcome for all.

  • Which action produces the most good and least harm?

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Duty/Rules-Based Approach

Whereby people have an obligation to follow moral rules (duties) or guidelines (rules) and choose the right action that aligns with their responsibilities, even if it leads to negative consequences.

  • Which action is considered morally right, regardless of the consequences?

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Virtues-Based Approach

Refers to taking action which practices integrity, honesty, courage, compassion and fairness (good morals), which allows to lead a good life

  • What action would a good person choose? FEELINGS BASED

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What are the “Ethical Concepts”

  • Integrity

  • Justice

  • Beneficence

  • Non-maleficence

  • Respect

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Integrity as an ethical concept

Refers to being honest, trustworthy and keeping your word

  • What is the honest action?

  • Do any promises need to be kept?

  • Is trust being maintained?

  • What is the conduct (behaviours/intentions) of the stakeholders involved?

  • Is there any misinformation involved?

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Justice as an ethical concept

Refers to the equal distribution of benefits, risks, costs and resources to all stakeholders

  • Does everyone have access to the benefits of the action?

  • Do any stakeholders have an unfair burden?

  • Have all stakeholders and their opinions been recognised?

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Beneficence as an ethical concept

Refers to aiming to improve the conditions of others through generosity, charity and kindness

  • What action maximises benefits and minimises harm?

  • How does the action help the stakeholders?

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Non-maleficence as an ethical concept

Refers to avoiding actions which lead to harmful consequences

  • What are the risks?

  • What action does the least harm?

  • Can harm be avoided?

  • What action is the safest?

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Respect as an ethical concept

Refers to the consideration of the wellbeing, freedom, independence, values and beliefs of all people

  • What do other people think/feel/need?

  • What action interferes the least with the differing views of others?

  • How can impact on other peoples needs/autonomy be accounted for?

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What are the factors which influence bioethical issues?

  • Social factors

  • Economic factors

  • Legal factors

  • Political factors

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Social Factors (Definition + Examples)

Factors that affect people’s lifestyle and wellbeing

Ex.

  • Confidentiality/privacy

  • Discrimination

  • Access to benefits

  • Impact on industry and livelihoods

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Economic Factors (Definition + Examples)

Factors that can affect an individual’s financial status

Ex.

  • Cost of services/treatments

  • Access to healthcare

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Legal Factors (Definition + Examples)

Factors that relate to laws, regulation and guidelines

Ex.

  • Intellectual property rights

  • Use of living organisms

  • Regulatory oversight

  • Consent

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Political Factors

Refers to government-related influences on the strategies of businesses and organisations

Ex.

  • Legislation and policies on health and technology

  • Differing opinions and views

More specifically, abortion and assisted suicide laws, resource/funding allocation in healthcare,