biol 114 final exam study guide

mutualism

• BOTH populations benefit

• ex: plants and mycorrhize

predatory / prey

• one species (predator) kills and eats another (prey)

• positive effect on species 1 and negative effect on species 2

• ex: crocodiles and fish

• leads to diverse adaptations in prey species

parasites and pathogens

• the host plants / animals are victimized by parasites or pathogens

• positive effect on species 1 and negative effect on species 2

• ex: salmonella and humans

herbivory

• an animal consumes plant parts or algae

• positive effect on species 1 and negative effect on species 2

• ex: caterpillars and leaves

• leads to diverse adaptations in plants

ecological niche

the sum of an organism’s use of the biotic and abiotic resources in its environment

population

a group of individuals of the same species living in a particular geographic area

producers

autotrophs that support all other tropic levels

consumers

general trophic level of heterotrophs

detritovores

• derive their energy from the dead organic material produced at all the trophic levels

• mostly worms and insects

decomposers

• secrete enzymes that digest molecules in organic materials and convert them into inorganic forms (called decomposition)

• mainly prokaryotes and fungi

keystone species

• a species whose niche holds the rest of its community in place —> its removal results in lower species diversity

• has low biomass or relative abundance

intertidal zone

biome where the ocean meets the land and the shore is pounded by waves during high tide and exposed to the sun and drying winds during low tide

estuaries

• biome that are productive areas where a freshwater stream or river merges with the ocean

• mix of salt and fresh water

wetlands

biome that are transitional between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems

photic zone of ocean

zone of ocean

• photosynthesis by phytoplankton and multicellular algae can occur

• coral reefs occur here

aphotic zone of ocean

zone of ocean where there is insufficient light for photosynthesis

pelagic zone of ocean

zone of ocean

• includes all open water (“open ocean”)

• zooplankton are abundant in the photic portion of this zone

benthic zone of ocean

zone of ocean which consists of the seafloor from continental shelf to deep-sea bottom

flowing freshwater biomes

• type of freshwater biome

• rivers and streams

standing freshwater biomes

• type of freshwater biome

• lakes and ponds

monosaccharides examples

glucose, galactose, and fructose

disaccharides examples

maltose, lactose, and sucrose

polysaccharides examples

cellulose, starch (amylose), chitin, and glycogen

saturated lipids

not good for you

unsaturated lipids

• good for you

• have a double bond somewhere

cellular respiration basic equation

C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ —> 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + ATP

photosynthesis basic equation

6CO₂ + 6H₂O —> C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂

promoter

• recognition site for RNA polymerase

• a short sequence preceding the start site for transcription

operator

allows proteins responsible for transcription to attach to the DNA sequence

splicing

the process where the genes that are produced with non-coding regions in the mRNA are removed before translation

transcription

DNA to RNA

translation

RNA to protein

allopatric and sympatric speciation

the 2 mechanisms of speciation

analogous structures

• features of different species that are similar in function but not necessarily in structure and which don’t derive from a common ancestral feature

• evolved in response to similar environmental challenge

• ex: wings in bats and wings in birds

homologous structures

• similar physical features in organisms that share a common ancestor, but the features serve completely different functions

• ex: limbs of humans and limbs of cats

mutations

a change in the DNA sequence of an organism

bacteria morphology

• shape of a singular bacteria cell

• cocci (spherical), bacilli (rod), spiral, vibrio (comma-shaped)

bacteria arrangement

• refers to the organization of groups of multiple bacteria cells

• single, diplo (2), tetrad (4), sarcina (8 in a cube), staphylo- (cluster), strepto- (chains)

chytridiomycota, zygomycota, ascomycota, basidiomycota, and glomeromycota

5 phyla of fungi

mycorrhizae

• underground network

• symbiosis between fungi and plant roots

  • absorbs phosphorus and other essential minerals from soil and makes them available to plant

saprobe

fungi

• eats dead things

imprinting

• learning that is irreversible and limited to a sensitive time period in an animal’s life

• ex: a young bird learning to identify its parents or song development in birds

spatial learning

when animals establish memories of landmarks in their environment that indicate the locations of food, nest sites, prospective mates, and potential hazards

associative learning

• behavior change based on associating a stimulus or or behavior with a reward or punishment

• includes trial and error learning

social learning

• learning by observing and mimicking others

• ex: many predators learn basic hunting tactics by observing and imitating their mothers

habituation

loss of response to a stimulus after repeated exposure

problem solving

• inventive behavior that arises in response to a new situation

• is highly developed in some mammals, especially dolphins and primates

fixed action pattern (FAP)

• behavior that is innate

• a predictable series of actions triggered by a specific stimulus

• ensure that activities essential to survival are performed correctly without practice

• ex: if a female goose’s egg rolls out of her nest, she will instinctively push the egg back into the nest

courtship rituals

• behavior that is innate

• confirms that individuals are of the same species, of the opposite sex, physically primed for mating, and not threats to each other

taxis

• behavior that is innate

• a response directed toward (positive) or away from (negative) a stimulus

kinesis

• behavior that is innate

• when an organism changes its movement in a non-directional way in response to a cue

• “random movement” in response to a stimulus

• ex: speeding up or slowing down

search image

• behavior that is learned

• a mental picture of the desired food, enables an animal to find particular foods efficiently

• ex: you can’t find your bag because you think it’s blue and you’re searching for something blue but it’s actually green

monogamous mating system

type of mating system where there is one male and one female and shared parental care

polygamous mating system

type of mating system where one of individual of one sex mates with several of the other (usually 1 male and many females)

homo habilis

• type of hominin

• handy man who used tools

homo neanderthalensis

• type of hominin

• neanderthals —> smart!

• spread throughout Europe and into near east

• extinct 40-28,000 years ago

homo sapiens

• type of hominin

• modern humans

apes

primates that don’t have tails but have long arms

new world monkeys

primates that are arboreal (live in trees) and have prehensile tail

Lucy

• Australopithecus aferensis

innate behavior

performed the same way by all members of a species

community

an assemblage of all the populations of organisms living close enough together for potential interaction (multiple species)

ecosystem

both the abiotic (nonliving) and biotic (living) components of the environment

tropical forest

• occur in equatorial areas

• experience warm temps and days that are 11-12 hours long year-round

• have variable rainfall

• lots of different species

• “think the Amazon”

savanna

• warm year-round

• have 30-50 cm annual rainfall

• experience dramatic seasonal variation

• dominated by grasses and scattered trees

  • insects are the dominant herbivores

• “think Lion King”

desert

• the driest of all terrestrial biomes

• typically have low and unpredictable rainfall

• cycles of growth and reproduction are keyed to rainfall

• can be very hot or very cold

chaparral

• characterized by dense, spiny shrubs with tough, evergreen leaves

• mild, rainy winters

• hot, dry summers

• vegetation adapted to periodic fires (forest fires)

• “think SoCal”

temperate grassland

• mostly treeless, except along rivers or streams

• found in regions of relatively cold winter temps

• experience precipitation of about 25-75 cm per year, with periodic droughts

• in North America, these have historically been grazed by large bison and pronghorn

• very productive farms have replaced most of these in North America

• prone to fires

• “think Kansas and the North American Prairie”

temperate broadleaf forest

• grow where there is sufficient moisture to support the growth of large trees

• wide-ranging temps

• high annual precipitation (75-150 cm)

• typically have a growing season of 5-6 months and a distinct annual rhythm

• canopy is more open that that of a tropical rain forest, and trees are not as tall or as diverse

• “think Ohio and NC”

northern coniferous forest (aka taiga)

• often dominated by a few species of trees

  • cone-bearing evergreen trees, such as spruce, pine, fir, and hemlock

• largest terrestrial biome on Earth

• long, cold winters

• short, wet summers

• “think Canada”

tundra

• covers expansive areas of the Arctic between the taiga and the permanently frozen polar ice

• the treeless arctic [name of biome]

  • characterized by permafrost and continuously frozen subsoil

  • may receive as little precipitation as some deserts

• “think Siberia”

polar ice

• temperatures are extremely cold year-round and precipitation is very low

• covers land north of the tundra and much of the Arctic Ocean

• “think Antarctica”

desertification

• the conversion of semi-arid regions to desert

• this is a significant environmental problem

interspecific competition

occurs when the niches of 2 populations overlap and both populations need a resource that is in short supply

camouflage, mechanical defenses, chemical defenses

examples of adaptations for predator avoidance that have evolved in prey populations through natural selection

spines and thorns; chemical toxins

examples of plant defenses against herbivores

coevoluion

a series of reciprocal evolutionary adaptations in 2 species

nematodes and tapeworms

examples of internal parasites

mosquitoes, ticks, aphids

examples of external parasites

trophic structure

a pattern of feeding relationships consisting of several different levels

primary consumers

tropic level of herbivores

secondary consumers

typically the trophic level of heterotrophs that eat herbivores

introns

the noncoding sequences in the gene (removed)

extrons

the coding sequences in the gene (kept during splicing)

speciation

the process by which one species splits into 2 or more species, accounts for both the unity and diversity of life

microevolution

the change in the gene pool of a population from one generation to the next

sympatric speciation

occurs when a new species arises within the same geographic area as its parent species

allopatric speciation

speciation by geographic isolation

sympatric speciation

the evolution of a new species from a surviving ancestral species while both continue to inhabit the same geographic region

cocci

spherical morphology of a bacteria cell

bacilli

rod-shaped morphology of a bacteria cell

vibrio

comma-shaped morphology of a bacteria cell

staphylo- arrangement

cluster arrangement of multiple bacteria cells

strepto- arrangement

chain arrangement of multiple bacteria cells

• post-anal tail

• notochord

• dorsal hollow nerve cord

• pharyngeal slits

ALL chordates have these embryonic structures

post-anal tail

• this is one of the embryonic structures that ALL chordates have

• an extension of the body that runs past the anal opening

• **in some species (like humans), this feature is only present during the embryonic stage

notocord

• this is one of the embryonic structures that ALL chordates have

• this becomes the vertebrae

dorsal hollow nerve cord

• this is one of the embryonic structures that ALL chordates have

• runs down the length of the organism and has pairs of nerves that connect to the organism’s muscles

• in some organisms, this expands into a brain at the top

pharyngeal slits

• this is one of the embryonic structures that ALL chordates have

• openings that connect the pharynx (throat) to the outside of the neck

• **in some species (like mammals), this feature is only present during the embryonic stage

lancelets, tunicates, and vertebrates

these are the 3 subphylums in the chordata phylum