AP Psych Midterm

consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment.

biological rhythms

periodic physiological fluctuations.

circadian (ser-KAY-dee-an) rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

REM sleep

rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.

delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.

hallucinations

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.

sleep

periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness—as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation.

insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.

narcolepsy

a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

night terrors

a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered.

sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.

dream

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. Dreams are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it.

manifest content

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content).

latent content

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content). Freud believed that a dream's latent content functions as a safety valve.

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep).

hypnosis

a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.

posthypnotic suggestion

a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors.

dissociation

a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others.

psychoactive drug

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood.

addiction

compulsive drug craving and use.

physical dependence

a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued.

psychological dependence

a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions.

tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect.

withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug.

depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.

Amphetamines

drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes.

barbiturates

drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment.

methamphetamine

a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels.

opiates

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.

stimulants

drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

ecstasy (MDMA)

a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 302)

hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.

LSD

a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide).

THC

the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations.

biological psychology

a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.)

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. The action potential is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane.

axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

dendrite

the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

myelin (MY-uh-lin) sheath

a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

synapse (SIN-aps)

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or cleft.

acetylcholine (ah-seat-el-KO-leen) (ACh)

a neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction.

endorphins (en-DOR-fins)

"morphine within"—natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

central nervous system (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord.

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system, which controls the glands, and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

interneurons

central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands.

nerves

neural "cables" containing many axons. These bundled axons, which are part of the peripheral nervous system, connect the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system.

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.

reflex

a simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.

neural networks

interconnected neural cells. With experience, networks can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results. Computer simulations of neural networks show analogous learning.

endocrine (EN-duh-krin) system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

hormones

chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another.

adrenal (ah-DREEN-el) glands

a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys. The adrenals secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and nor-epinephrine (nor-adrenaline), which help to arouse the body in times of stress.

pituitary gland

the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

electroencephalogram (EEG)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

lesion (LEE-zhuhn)

tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue.

fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. MRI scans show brain anatomy; fMRI scans show brain function.

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain.

PET (positron emission tomography) scan

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions.

medulla (muh-DUL-uh)

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.

reticular formation

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal.

amygdala (uh-MIG-duh-la)

two lima bean sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion.

cerebellum (sehr-uh-BELL-um)

the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance.

limbic system

a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.

thalamus (THAL-uh-muss)

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

hypothalamus (hi-po-THAL-uh-muss)

a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion.

cerebral (seh-REE-bruhl) cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

glial cells (glia)

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons.

frontal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments.

occipital (ahk-SIP-uh-tuhl) lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field.

parietal (puh-RYE-uh-tuhl) lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.

temporal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite ear.

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

sensory cortex

the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

Broca's area

controls language expression—an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's area

controls language reception—a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.

plasticity

the brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development.

corpus callosum (KOR-pus kah-LOW-sum)

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

split brain

a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them.

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.

encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage.

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten.

storage

the retention of encoded information over time.

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.