English Language Chapter 1

Phonology

The study of the patterns that speech sounds form within a language.

Phonological patterning

A set of phonological language features in written and spoken texts. Features that rely on how words sound.

Examples of Phonological patterning

Alliteration, assonance, consonance, onomatopoeia, rhythm and rhyme.

Alliteration

The repetition of phonemes at the beginning of words in a phrase, clause or sentence. (Phonological patterning)

Example
Those are pretty practical pants you're wearing.

Assonance

The repetition of vowel phonemes across phrases, clauses or sentences. (Phonological patterning)

Example
The fleet of jeeps drove through the streets.

Consonance

The repetition of consonant phonemes, often at syllable-final boundaries. (Phonological patterning)

Example
The bees in the trees buzzed with ease.

Onomatopoeia

The process by which evocative words are created from the sounds they represent. (Phonological patterning)

Example
The crow squawked loudly, causing a rustle in the bushes.

Rhythm

When the intonation of a set of words is repeated across two or more phrases, clauses or sentences. (Phonological patterning)

Example
Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary.

Rhyme

The repetition of similar phonemes at the ends of two or more words. This entails the direct manipulation of consonance and assonance in word-final syllables. (Phonological patterning)

Example
The potato cake was fake.

Morphology

The study of words and their parts. Each word consists of one or more morphemes, which is the smallest unit of meaning within a word.

Lexicology

The study of the form, meaning and behavior of words (Word classes and word formation processes).

Syntax

The study of how words are ordered in structures that communicate meaning - phrases, clauses and sentences.

Active voice

The subject of a verb performs the action, "Frida threw the basketball"

Passive voice

The subject of the verb receives the action, "The basketball was thrown by Frida"

Syntactic patterning

The manipulation of syntax (structure) to draw readers' or listeners' attention to a component of a text in a way that reinforces meaning and understanding.

Examples of Syntactic patterning

Parallelism, antithesis and listing.

Parallelism

The repetition of grammatical structures two or more times in succession.

Example
work hard, stay focused (verb+adjective repeated structure)

Antithesis

The presentation of two contrasting ideas near one another in parallel structures. Used to create a balance between opposing ideas and to emphasize this contrast.

Example
'It was the best of times, it was the worst of times …'

Listing

Used to present a series of related ideas, items or elements, usually in a similar grammatical form.
Examples
I need to buy pies, cakes, hot dogs and sausage rolls,

Pragmatics

The study of how language is used within a given context, and how context contributes to meaning.

Discourse

Written or spoken texts that are longer than a sentence

Cohesion

The way we use grammatical and lexical techniques to link words together to create meaning. It is important as it ensures that an audience can easily follow what is happening within a text and is a subset of Coherence.

Features of Cohesion

Lexical choice; ellipsis, repetition and substitution; collocation; adverbials and conjunctions; information flow; and reference

Lexical choice Key Examples

Synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy and hypernymy, elevated/low-level lexis

Synonymy

The use of pairs or groups of words that are equivalent or very similar in meaning.

Example
Choice, selection and preference, (all three words have a similar meaning so could be used within a text to create cohesion)

Antonymy

The relationship of words that are opposite in meaning. It unifies words even though they are opposite in meaning, as they can be easily
contrasted and compared.

Example
He's always been hot and cold with me.

Hyponymy and Hypernymy

A hyponym is a word that belongs to (is considered a subtype of) a larger category of terms, which is called a hypernym. A hypernym can have multiple hyponyms, and hyponyms can also be hypernyms. The clear semantic links between the terms increase cohesion.

Example
Cat is a hyponym of the animal hypernym; and ragdoll is a hyponym of the cat hypernym.

Ellipsis

The omission of words or phrases, particularly when they are already known due to contextual information or because they have been referred to previously.

Example
Lauren first went to school then (Lauren went) home right after.

Repetition

The use of the same word throughout a text to reiterate an idea or topic. It can occur with exact duplication, or with inflectional modification.

Substitution

when alternative words, phrases or clauses are used in place of the original. This helps to reduce unnecessary repetition.

Examples
Jonas met Daniel Andrews. The former premier shook his hand.

Collocation

Words that typically appear next to or very near each other in texts. They strengthen cohesion by allowing readers or listeners to predict the
next word in a sentence or utterance.

Adverbials

Words, phrases or clauses that provide information, often in relation to time, place or manner. They can be used as signposts within a text.

Example
Firstly, we will do a warm-up game, immediately followed by some morning tea, and finally* finish with a Q&A

Adverbials and conjunctions

Lexemes that can be used to improve the flow of writing by tying together phrases, clauses, sentences and paragraphs.

Conjunctions

Coordinators join words, phrases and clauses together to allow for additions, comparisons and contrasts. Common coordinate conjunctions include 'and', 'or' and 'but'.

Subordinators place relationships between ideas in the context of time and space, or cause and effect. Common subordinate conjunctions include 'although',
'after' and 'because'.

Information flow

How speakers convey meaning by organizing and sequencing their language to effectively communicate with their intended audience.

Front focus

Front focus occurs when a speaker or writer places new or important information at the initial or front part of a sentence. In typical English sentences, we use Subject, Verb, Object word order When something appears before the subject, it's considered to have been placed in front focus.

Example
"Cake i do like"

Clefting

Clefting refers to the modification of the syntax of a sentence to emphasise one particular element. This allows that element to become the focus of the
sentence, helping to increase cohesion. There are two types of clefting: itclefting and wh-clefting.

It-clefting

Sentences beginning with 'it', directly followed by a conjugated form of the primary auxiliary 'to be'. The focus of the sentence follows, then the additional
information completes the sentence in the form of a subordinate clause.

Examples
It is potato cakes that I like eating, (emphasising 'potato cakes')
It is eating potato cakes that I like, (emphasising 'eating potato cakes')

Wh-clefting

Wh-clefts begin with a relative pronoun such as 'what' or 'who', or 'how', as part of a subordinate clause. This is followed by a conjugated form of the primary auxiliary 'to be' near the end of the sentence, finishing with the element in focus.

Examples
What I like eating is potato cakes, (emphasising 'potato cakes')
What I like is eating potato cakes, (emphasising 'eating potato cakes')

End focus

End focus occurs when speakers or writers place new or important information at the end of a sentence or clause. This delays the delivery of a main idea to give
it prominence or create a sense of anticipation, surprise or resolution

Reference

When we use an expression to refer to another word, phrase or clause (the referent) within a discourse or setting. Examples include anaphoric reference, cataphoric reference and deictic reference.

Anaphoric reference

Anaphoric reference is when an author or speaker refers to something previously mentioned in a conversation or written discourse. This can be achieved using pronouns or other referring expressions, such as possessive determiners. Anaphoric reference allows us to avoid repetition.

Cataphoric reference

Cataphoric reference is when an author or speaker uses a pronoun or other referring expression to refer to something that will be mentioned later in the discourse. Cataphoric reference can build anticipation and set up expectations.

Example
He promised to help out, and Jim never breaks a promise

Deictic reference

An expression used in relation to the speaker, listener or context of the communication that require situational context to understand who is speaking, where they are, or when the event occurs

Coherence

The logical and meaningful organization of a text. It involves arranging ideas, information and the elements of a text in such a way that the sentences, paragraphs and sections create a clear message with smooth transitions. This is integral as it allows an audience to understand what is being conveyed

Features of Coherence

Cohesion, inference, logical ordering, formatting and consistency and conventions.

Inference

The meaning that the audience makes when considering a text that contains information that is not overtly present. This is drawn from the available information, context and our own reasoning, allowing us to draw conclusions beyond what is written. Meaning often relies on a cultural or social understanding of a particular context.

Logical ordering

When we construct a text, as we arrange information in a way that will maximize understanding. Common methods include chronological, sequential, and categorical ordering

Formatting

The font style, spacing, alignment, headings and subheadings, lists, text colours, graphics, margins and white space. Each of these visual features can help give prominence to more important elements of a text.

Consistency

When similar concepts or entities are referred to in the same way throughout the text, without unnecessary variations. Consistent formatting, as well as the use of consistent punctuation, capitalization, font and spacing also contribute to the overall coherence of a text by providing visual cues to the reader and creating a unified presentation.

Conventions

Established rules and expectations for how certain types of texts are structured, organized or presented. They can include genre-specific structures, and field- or domain-specific writing norms, such as the standard citation styles you might use in your VCE studies. Adhering to established conventions in writing helps readers to follow the text, understand the intended meaning and engage with the content in a familiar and expected manner.

Features of spoken discourse

Openings, closings, adjacency pairs, minimal responses / backchannels, overlapping speech, discourse markers/particles and non-fluency features.

Openings

The initial phase of a discourse where participants establish contact and introduce the topic or purpose. The contents of an opening sequence are specific to the context of a conversation. Openings not only establish contact between participants, but also help to create rapport (familiarity and solidarity between people) and set the stage for the forthcoming conversation. An opening can also signal the intended tenor of a conversation to all participants, helping to meet face needs and establish an appropriate register.

Closings

The final phase of discourse, where participants wrap up the interaction, exchange finishing remarks and signal the end of the exchange. They provide a clear end point to a conversation, allowing participants to reflect on the discussion and potentially leave with a sense of satisfaction or resolution.

Adjacency pairs

Sequentially linked utterances or turns in a conversation where one speech act is followed by its expected response. The preferred response is the one expected by the initiator of the sequence. The dispreferred is the response that is not expected.

Minimal responses / Backchannels

Brief replies in a conversation that acknowledge and encourage another speaker, and may provide opinions on the topic, without providing significant additional information or indicating intention to take the floor. They help maintain conversational flow and indicate understanding, engagement, support or agreement.

Overlapping speech

The situation in which two or more participants in a conversation speak simultaneously. Overlapping speech can be either cooperative; demonstrating mutual understanding or support, or uncooperative; when participants speak over each other without regard for the ongoing conversation. It can disrupt the flow of communication, hinder understanding or show disregard. If frequent, this type of overlap signals a hostile relationship between participants.

Discourse markers/particles

Linguistic elements that do not carry any semantic meaning on their own, but play a role in organizing communication, managing interactions and indicating speaker intention.
Common examples include "Well", "You Know", "like", "Anyway", "So", "I mean", "Right".

Non-fluency features

Aspects of discourse that reduce its cohesion. These features include pauses, filled pauses / voiced hesitations, false starts, repetition and repairs.

Pauses

Brief intervals of silence during speech. Non-fluent pauses can occur for various reasons, such as the speaker gathering thoughts, indicating hesitation or signalling a shift in topic.

Filled pauses / Voiced hesitations

Instances where speakers use vocalizations such as 'uh', 'urn' or 'er' to fill the silence in their speech They often indicate hesitation, uncertainty or a momentary struggle to find the right words and are commonly used to hold the floor during a conversation.

False starts

When speakers begin an utterance but then interrupt themselves and start again. This interruption can occur mid-word, mid-phrase or mid-clause. They occur due to self-correction, uncertainty or the need to rephrase for clarity.

Repetition (Cohesion)

The unintentional restating of words, phrases or clauses within a speech due to hesitations, self-correction or difficulty in finding the right words to say.

Repairs

Instances where speakers correct or revise their previous utterances. This may occur due to errors, miscommunication or the need for clarification. Repairs can happen through various strategies, such as self-correction or seeking confirmation.

Strategies in spoken discourse

Topic management, turn-taking, management of repair sequences and code switching.

Topic management methods

Initiation, development, shift, change, loop, termination

Topic initiation

Introducing a new topic in a conversation. It can be explicit with a direct statement or question, or implicit with hints or cues that introduce the topic.

Topic Development

The progression or elaboration of a topic within a conversation. It involves expanding upon the initial discussion by providing more details, examples or explanations related to the topic.

Topic Shift

Where the conversation moves from one topic to another, and there is a clear coherent link between the two.

Topic Change

The transition from one topic to a totally different topic during a conversation. It can occur naturally as participants move from one point to another or it can be a deliberate change to a different subject.

Topic Loop

Revisiting or returning to a previously discussed topic in a conversation. It involves resurfacing a subject that has previously been mentioned but not fully explored or resolved.

Topic Termination

The closure of a topic within a conversation, occurring when participants reach a natural end point of the conversation or when the discourse is ended.

Turn-taking

The methods by which speakers alternate turns when talking. In most conversations, at any given moment, one person speaks while others listen, and then another person takes their turn to speak.

Management of repair sequences

The processes by which speakers identify and correct communication problems in spoken discourse, to ensure smooth and continuous conversation. These problems could be related to pronunciation, grammar, word choice or misunderstanding. Key types are self-initiated self repair, self-initiated other repair, other-initiated self repair, and other-initiated other repair

Self-initiated self repair

The speaker realizes their own mistake and corrects it immediately without intervention from the listener. This is the most common method of managing repairs.

Self-initiated other repair

The speaker notices their own mistake and invites the listener to correct it. This indicates a cooperative speech exchange as well as familiarity or rapport with the listener.

Other-initiated self repair

The listener indicates a problem and the speaker makes the correction. This indicates a cooperative speech exchange and familiarity or rapport with the listener; however, it can be face threatening in some settings and contexts.

Other-initiated other repair

The listener indicates a problem and provides the correction. It may cause offence if not appropriate to the context. Successful correction that does not cause offence can indicate familiarity or rapport with the listener.

Code switching

When a speaker switches between two or more languages in a single interaction or text. This can be done for many purposes, including to demonstrate group membership and belonging, to reflect a shared cultural/linguistic background, or to increase social bonds and solidarity.

Politeness strategies

Positive politeness refers to the strategies we use to create and maintain social harmony by demonstrating empathy and building rapport. These include; emphasizing similarity, showing interest, using humor, offering compliments, and using inclusive language.

Negative politeness

Strategies that focuses on reducing the imposition placed on the listener. This is achieved by indirectness, showing deference and demonstrating respect for the listener's autonomy. Key examples include; hedging, being indirect and ambiguous, using low modality and apologizing.

Positive face

The desire to be seen as competent and liked by others. It reflects an individual's need for social recognition, appreciation and inclusion. Concerns the desire for favorable social interactions and maintaining a positive self-image.

Negative Face

The desire to be free from imposition and constraints on autonomy. It reflects an individual's need for independence, privacy and freedom to act. Concerns the desire to maintain one's sense of individuality and personal space.

Face-threatening acts

Communication that may pose a threat to an individual's positive or negative face, leading to consequences such as embarrassment, loss of face, offence or conflict. Examples of face-threatening acts include making requests, giving directives, complaining, disagreeing, interrupting and delivering bad news.

Semantics

The study of understanding and meaning-making when we consider words, phrases, sentences and texts. It considers both logical and lexical
(dictionary) meanings.

Semantic patterning

The organisation and arrangement of meanings
or semantic concepts within a text. This can be used to aid with cohesion and coherence, and to capture and maintain the attention of specific audiences.

Examples of semantic patterning

Figurative language, irony, metaphor, oxymoron, simile, hyperbole, personification, animation, lexical ambiguity and puns

Figurative language

Figurative language includes words or expressions that deviate from their literal or ordinary meanings to create a more vivid or expressive effect. Figurative language is an umbrella term that consists of many other semantic patterns.

Irony

When a speaker or writer states one thing but means another, typically the opposite of what they have stated. This can be achieved via sarcasm, understatement or backhanded compliments. A semantic pattern.

Metaphor

The use of one semantic domain to help explain another semantic domain. A semantic pattern.

Oxymoron

When contradictory words or phrases are used in combination to create a contrasting effect. The juxtaposition of contradictory elements can evoke irony, humour or emphasise a paradoxical situation. A semantic pattern.

Simile

Comparing elements using 'like' or 'as' to highlight their similarities. A semantic pattern.

Hyperbole

A figure of speech that involves exaggerated statements or claims that are not meant to be taken literally. A semantic pattern.

Personification

Attributing human qualities, characteristics or actions to non-human entities or inanimate objects. A semantic pattern.

Animation

The technique of bringing inanimate objects or fictional characters to life through language based around motion and expression. A semantic pattern.

Lexical ambiguity

Lexical ambiguity refers to the existence of two or more possible meanings within a single word. When used intentionally, lexical ambiguity can add layers of meaning to a text, evoke emotion or produce a comedic effect. A semantic pattern.

Puns

A form of lexical ambiguity that exploits multiple meanings for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. These plays on words rely heavily on phonological, orthographical (relating to writing conventions) or semantic similarities.

Key semantic features

Semantic domain, idiom, denotation, connotation, euphemism and dysphemism.

Semantic domain

The grouping of words based on shared or related meanings.

Idiom

Commonly used phrases which have a non-literal meaning