AP Psychology Unit 1 Terms

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors

charles darwin

argued that natural selections shapes behaviors and bodies

natural selection

the principle that the inherited traits enabling an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

mutation

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change

environment

every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to our experiences of the people and things around us

heredity

the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring

genes

the biochemical units of heredity

genome

the complete instructions for making an organism

identical (monozygotic) twins

individuals who developed from a single fertilized egg that split in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

fraternal (dizygotic) twins

individuals who developed from separate fertilized eggs; they are genetically no closer than ordinary siblings, but they shared a prenatal environment

interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

epigenetics

“above” or “in addition to” genetics; the study of the molecular mechanisms by which environments can influence genetic expression (without a DNA change)

nervous system

the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

central nervous system (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body

nerves

bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sensory organs

sensory (afferent) neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor (efferent) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles (aka the skeletal nervous system)

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs; its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk reflex

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

cell body

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life support center

dendrites

a neuron’s often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body

axon

the segmented neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; it enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next

glial cells (glia)

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

refractory period

in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state

all-or-none response

a neuron’s reaction of either firing or not firing

synapse

the junction between teh axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron; the tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap/cleft

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap between neurons; when released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

reuptake

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron

acetylcholine (ACh) function

enables muscle action, learning, and memory

dopamine function

influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion

serotonin function

affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal

norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal

GABA (gammaaminobutyric acid) function

major inhibitory neurotransmitter

glutamate function

major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

endorphins function

influence perception of pain or pleasure

substance p function

involved in pain perception and immune response

endorphins

“morphine within”; natural, opioid-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure

agonist

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action

antagonist

a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action

endocrine system

the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands and fat tissue that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

psychoactive drug

a chemical substance that alters the brain, causing changes in perceptions and moods

substance use disorder

a disorder characterized by continued substance use despite resulting life disruption

depressants

drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

examples of depressants

alcohol, heroin, barbiturates (tranquilizers), opioids

tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular. use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect

addiction

an everyday term for compulsive substance use (and sometimes for dysfunctional behavior patterns, such as out-of-control gambling) that continue despite harmful consequences

withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug/behavior

effects of alcohol

slowed neural processing, memory disruption, reduced self-awareness, expectancy effects

barbiturates

drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement

opioids

opium and its derivatives; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

stimulants

drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

examples of stimulants

nicotine, cocaine, methamphetamine, ecstasy, caffeine

hallucinogens

psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

near-death experience

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations

hallucinogen examples

LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), marijuana

alcohol pleasurable effects

initial high followed by relaxation and disinhibition

alcohol negative effects

depression, memory loss, organ. damage, impaired reactions

heroin pleasurable effects

rush of euphoria, relief from pain

heroin negative effects

depressed physiology, loss of natural endorphin function

caffeine positive effects

increased alertness and wakefulness

caffeine negative effects

anxiety, restlessness, insomnia in high doses

nicotine positive effects

arousal and relaxation, sense of well-being

nicotine negative effects

heart disease, cancer

cocaine positive effects

rush of euphoria, confidence, energy

cocaine negative effects

cardiovascular stress, suspiciousness, depressive crash

methamphetamine positive effects

euphoria, alertness, energy

methamphetamine negative effects

irritability, insomnia, hypertension, seizures

ecstasy positive effects

emotional elevation, disinhibition

ecstasy negative effects

dehydration, overheating, depressed mood, impaired cognitive and immune functioning

LSD positive effects

visual “trip”

LSD negative effects

risk of panic

marijuana positive effects

enhanced sensation, relief of pain, distortion of time, relaxation

marijuana negative effects

impaired learning and memory, increased risk of psychological disorders

biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes; some call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists

biopsychological approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

levels of analysis

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon

neuroplasticity

the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage of by building new pathways based on experience

lesion

tissue destruction; brain lesions may occur naturally (disease or trauma), during surgery, or experimentally (using electrodes to destroy brain cells)

EEG (electroencephalogram)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface; waves measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

MEG (magnetoencephalography)

a brain-imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical activity

CT (computed tomography) scan

a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure

PET (positron emission tomography)

a technique for detecting brain activity that displays where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans; fMRI scans show brain function as well as structure

hindbrain

consists of medulla, pons, and cerebellum; directs essential survival functions, such as breathing, sleeping, and wakefulness, as well as coordination and balance

midbrain

found atop the brainstem; connects the hindbrain with the forebrain, controls some motor movement, and transmits auditory and visual function

forebrain

consists of the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus; manages complex cognitive activities, sensoy and associative functions, and voluntary motor activities

brainstem

the central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

medulla

the hindbrain structure that is the brainstem’s base; controls heartbeat and breathing