Intro to Media Studies Midterm

Media + Literacy

- all media are texts that can be read for meaning

- reading skills are learned through media literacy- learning process

- we require learned skills to understand texts- to decode them

- reading requires an active process of interpretation- consumption is never passive, we are always using our media literacies to read the text for meaning/ interpreting it

Media + Everyday Life

1. media are a source of pleasure and routine- help structure our day

2. media are tools for learning and interpretation- can provide info about the world and perspectives

3. a form of connection & social currency- use communications media or use media as a topic to connect with those around us

4. an expense paid for directly or indirectly (w money, time, and/or info)

Utopian View

Media practice was bad but it's getting better. They believe it's improving. It can also celebrate audience practices.

- there's something for everyone

- if you don't like something, watch something else

- can act as informational/educational resource

- they recognize there is bad stuff out there but believe it's outshined by a high number of alternatives

Utopian View critiques

- dismissive of social harm

- ignores commercial interest~ is there really something for everyone?

- ignores production hierarchies~ (ignores who is targeted)

- employs the "myth of progress"

Dystopian View

Media evolved into something bad, but it used to be good. It's...

- passive and addictive.

- exploitative and formulaic

- consumerist

Dystopian View critiques

- totalizing~ is it all bad?

- nostalgic~ "kids these days" idea

- elitest

- assumes passive consumption by audience (sponges soaking up information)

Mirror View

They believe that the medium/genre/practice reflects reality or reflects audience interests

ex. TV is more violent because society has become more violent and people want violent content.

Mirror View critique

- media makers have agency, their own messeges/perspectives so media does not simply reflect reality

- there's a selective process of production so not all stories are told, certain ones are selected that are seen as beneficial to the media makers goals/beliefs/biases

- makes assumptions about why and how audiences consume media~ we all have our own interpretation

cultural studies perspective

- unites the other perspectives and recognizes how culture and media are fundamentally linked.

- media changes society and society changes media

- examined interrelationships between media, industry, everyday life, society, and politics

- focuses on a more interpretive approach to media

cultural studies methods

1) textual analysis

2) audience studies

3) political economy

textual analysis

close reading and analysis of a text looking for themes, meanings, representations, etc.

ex. watching a film and looking for how gender and sexuality are constructed

audience studies (sometimes called reception studies)

study reception rather than the text // look for everyday interpretations and pleasures. can be gathered thru interviews, surveys, observations.

ex. studying the representation of sexuality in Star Wars by how the audience understands and uses it in their daily lives

political economy

focused on media power and economics, especially the power of large media corporations to shape political opinion and action.

examines the relationship between industrial media power and politics. media conglomeration as a threat to democracy.

Technological Convergence

a single technology capable of performing the functions of multiple, previously distinct media

ex. an iPhone has many different technological capabilities such as playing music, surfing the Internet, taking photos etc.

ex. smart TV- cable, streaming, lighting, security cameras, etc.

content convergence

content from one medium now available through a variety of devices

- shared content, different devices

- content shared across different mediums, different devices. The devices differ but have access to the same content.

- can watch TVD on laptop, TV, phone

implications of content convergence for TV industry

collect fragmented audiences through many outlets

implications of content convergence for media makers/producers

more outlets for material & more opportunities for money

implications of content convergence for audience

1. individualized consumption:

- timeshifting (watch whenever they want) (binging, re-watching, recording, etc.)

- placeshifting (watch wherever they want) (watch on your phone during your lunch break)

2. greater content variety but with so many different options and outlets, they must learn to navigate through their choices. trade-off.

implications of content convergence for media

Through convergence, media boundaries are blurring

transmedia extensions

a form of content convergence where the content on another platform isn't just a version of the same text, but something additional to it

definition:

- supplemental content related to one medium that can be found on other platforms

- ex. CW website provides info on cast and crew, behind the scenes extras. links to streaming the soundtrack, etc. so much more than just episodes.

goals of transmedia extensions

overall goal: to provide additional content that allows a more engaging consumption experience

4 goals:

- keep audience engaged with show btw episodes/seasons

- the fans that check out a show online are likely to share it with friends/family. they become brand advocates who generate buzz/awareness- strength of recommendations from a friend

- expose viewers to ads and promotion

- collect user data for them to use and they can also sell that data to third parties like advertisers

transmedia storytelling (Mikos)

Mikos defines it as:

"the systematic planning of a story throughout different platforms"

in other words, it's a kind of transmedia extension in which all the media share the same "textual universe"

it's not just info on the cast or the soundtrack used, it's part of the story itself. it builds on the story. NOT ABOUT THE SHOW BUT PART OF IT.

unauthorized content convergence

content convergence "piracy", transmedia extensions as fan practice, and transmedia storytelling as fan fiction

unauthorized because they are produced outside of the corporation that controls the copyright

examples:

piracy: users record shows, edit out the ads, and produce unauthorized edited copies to share

fan practice: generate and share their own artwork, memes, montages, etc.

fan fiction: they use their favorite movies, books, etc. to generate their own stories that take place within the storyworld, to expand on it

Ideology

values and beliefs that people use to make sense of the world. they feel commonsense/ natural to those who hold them.

can be widely shared but never universal, there are many ideologies, numerous ways of making sense of the world.

our ideological beliefs guide what we think about how to live and to behave, about social rules and roles, about what is good and bad, just vs unjust.

dominant ideology

those in power shape ideology through institutional control (education, law, religion, and media)

dominant ideology is dominant in two ways:

1. reinforces the power of the few/supports those in power

2. most people in society hold/share these ideological beliefs

hegemony

process of maintaining power through seeking ideological consensus. ruling through agreement not force.

the few people in power turn their private interests into the interests of society as a whole in order to preserve their power and interests.

a process that must constantly be reaffirmed because its at risk of being replaced by new ideas/ideologies.

counter-hegemony

resisting and challenging the dominant ideology, confronting/critiquing it and presenting an alternative

texts as polysemic

texts can be interpreted in multiple ways so audiences are active participants interpreting a message based on on their own experiences and beliefs.

many people in a culture will share the same experiences and beliefs so they will interpret something the same way but different ideologies + the same text can cause different meanings to be derived. meaning is a site for ideological struggle.

Hall's encoding/decoding model argued

that there are two distinct processes- the encoding and decoding process

encoding (Hall)

all media are constructions representing a specific perspective, worldview, ideology. media makers use codes to construct their message; texts are encoded with meaning. media makers have a preferred meaning (preferred interpretation for the audience) and they use culturally shared codes to convey it.

encoded at level of production.

defining Hall's "meaning structures"

media literacies and cultural knowledge.

the 3 meaning structures that inform both the encoding and decoding process (Hall)

1. technical infrastructure: access to tools

2. relations of production: economics

3. frameworks: media literacy

the 3 meaning structures applied to the encoding process (production side)

technical infrastructure: access to tools of production like cameras, lighting, editing tools

relations of production: about economics, industry's economics

frameworks: media literacy: media literacy, knowledge of constructing stories (skills to make media)

the 3 meaning structures applied to the decoding process

technical infrastructure: access to tools of consumption, whatever you need to access the text

relations of production: about economics, audience's socioeconomic position

frameworks: media literacy: media literacy, understanding media storytelling (skills to read texts)

decoding (Hall)

this is where the audience has control over meaning- level of consumption.

audience uses their meaning structure to interpret a text's meanings and it doesn't have to be the preferred meaning.

decoding can fall into 3 positions:

1. dominant-hegemonic- accepts preferred meaning

2. negotiated- partially accepts (somewhat agree and disagree)

3. oppositional- rejects preferred meaning

value of encoding/decoding model

helps us recognize...

- all messages contain more than one potential interpretation

- producers can't close off all other decodings

- the struggle with getting people's ideological agreement

criticisms of encoding/decoding model

- no one ever fully agrees or disagrees with a text

- it's better to think of decoding as a spectrum instead of three discrete categories

- decoding is a continuum where interpretations are always negotiated and some lean closer to one of the two extremes

- it works better for overtly ideological texts

- doesn't recognize multiple motivations behind encoding/production

- needs to be a feedback loop where decoding links back to encoding as decoding influences future encodings

textual approach to genre

defines genre as content sharing the same storytelling conventions and stylistic codes. it believes you can recognize a media text genre via textual analysis

conventions

specific narrative elements INSIDE of a story

- settings can be conventional like the country in Westerns and space in sci-fi

- character types can be conventional like in crime shows or family sitcoms (fun uncle, geeky kid, etc.)

- plot can be conventional like the prom, first kiss, first date, wedding, etc. (diff takes on same story)

- ideology can be conventional across texts, ex. sci-fi's usually take a utopian or dystopian perspective

stylistic CODES

modes of production EXTERNAL to the narrative. not part of the story but how its produced.

length- comedies are usually 30 min long & movies are 90 min long

visual style such as lighting- crime and horror shows use dark lighting

audio style- type of music- horror films use creepy music, sitcoms use a laugh track

problematizing the textual approach to genre

genres aren't textually self-evident, as there is no system for what code and convention differences demand a new category. some shared codes/conventions matter and others don't. the teen rebel character can be present in several diff genres. we need to consider audience and industry roles.

insufficient bc it treats genre as independent of industry and culture!!

discursive approach to genre (Mittell)

genres are determined by cultural discourse (common shared understandings). genres are categories agreed upon by industry + critics + audiences (not fixed codes and conventions).

places genre in the context of culture, industry criticism, and audience practices

ex. kids movies and chick flicks are built around who the movies are for, their audience, not codes/conventions

Mittell- 3 ways discourse operates with genre

1. how the genre is defined shapes the discourse (comedy or horror?)

2. how it's interpreted (what's it saying?)

3. how it's evaluated (classy v. trashy?)

genre innovation

generic repetition has the risk of sparking boredom in the audience so genres add differences.

the result: genre is the interplay between imitation and innovation. they imitate codes and conventions to make a text adherent to a specific genre but add something new and unexpected. produces predictability and surprise, familiar but not too familiar.

innovation= deviating from the codes & conventions

industrial utility of genre

1. organize production by genre

2. genre is a label to manage consumer interest

- a way of creating familiarity with the unfamiliar

- an attempt to succeed by offering familiar genres that you enjoy already

- genre is a contract or promise between the producers and the audience, we are disappointed if the text isn't what it was promoted to be

story characters and audience

characters are assigned traits that impact the story. they're created to make the story more meaningful and engaging. narratives usually follow a lead character (the protagonist) who drives the story. they make decisions that drive the narrative forward, impact the plot.

audiences are encouraged to identify with the protagonist and there's two ways to foster this identification: externally and internally

fostering identification with protagonist externally

from outside the character.

- frequency- the more time you spend with them, the stronger your bond is with that character

- depicting their emotional reactions

- identify with protagonists who are skilled at what they do

fostering identification with protagonist internally

from inside the character.

- access to their thoughts and feelings

- voiceover- making them the narrator

- Point of view- understand how they see it

they are ways of getting inside of their head.

anthology TV narrative form

ongoing series where each episode features a different story. every episode is self-contained/brings closure.

ex. Twilight Zone and Black Mirror.

different characters with different situations and settings

serial structure

its about the accumulation of detail and history. there's a more complex narrative over time. it's an evolving plot line that the audience needs to pay attention to. they include recaps.

same characters in different situations.

episodic structure

most common TV narrative. circular closure- return to original status quo after disruption. the end returns to the beginning state, don't need recaps. it's okay to miss episodes. ex. Friends

you can add seriality elements that manifest as arcs that cover multiple episodes or even seasons like the relationship between Ross and Rachel.

same characters in same type of situations.

blurred boundaries between tv and film

1. programming/consumption- scheduling/watching movies on TV. thru: inserting breaks for ads in movies and editing their format to fit a TV screen.

2. greater fluidity of talent moving between film and TV productions- film actors/directors making TV shows. bc: shows with less episodes provide them time to balance diff projects, there is an increased openness to innovation, this is the peak of TV (it's being rewarded and not seen as a lesser medium)

3. stories- movies rebooted as TV shows; film franchises extended to TV

4. storytelling- films structured like multiple TV episodes (Martin). TV-like narrative plateau before a twist occurs in a movie, storytelling convergence is process of squeezing and stretching (Martin)

squeezing vs. stretching (Martin)

adapting a text from one medium to another requires:

1. "squeezing" into short-form content

- novel into a movie

- emphasize the plot/action and remove descriptive info. you focus on the excitement.

2. "stretching" into long form content

- increasing length

- emphasize descriptive richness, add material, fill out the middle by adding obstacles and suspending conclusion. expand on story details.

mediation

the process of recording/selecting/ordering events into media narratives. It's representing an event through media. all media are mediated representations of reality, a version/vision of what happened. constructed through codes, conventions, and narrative structure.

news and how it's shaped

the news is the result of institutional training, structure, and routines which form shared norms across the profession. the result of routines that become professional norms.

the goal: newsworthiness and objectivity, which are shaped by social processes like deadlines, money, creator bias, recording, who's interviewed, etc.

there are no objective representations of reality so news is constructed to "feel" objective and newsworthy. the practices have been highly institutionalized.

4 Ways of Constructing Reality TV (Kraszewski)

1. selecting participants (casting)

- choosing character types for the show

2. narrative structures

- take clips to craft interesting stories

3. location

4. editing

- important for narrative construction , choosing what events get attention and who to show

The Real World industrial utility (Kraszewski) (the channel's needs)

to expand original production using cheap reality TV and to help create routine schedule for channel

The Real World narrative (Kraszewski)

to respond to charges of racial exclusion and promote liberal values, repairing its reputation

celebrity

person who attracts public and media attention to such a degree that their life and personality are of public interest. people become interested in their "real lives". they are both workers and products.

economics of celebrity

goal- to encourage consumers to buy a new product by offering something familiar and appealing: the celebrity. celebrities lure a core fan base that helps make profits more predictable. stars create familiarity. media rely on celebrities to generate money and its also in the star's financial interest.

star text

the sum of everything we affiliate with the star. celebs are a cultural product, they are a text comprised of many texts that can be analyzed for meaning. they are intertextual, always more than one role or performance.

celeb star text is comprised of 4 elements

1. body of work

2. promotion

3. publicity

4. audience practices

celeb star text: body of work

the totality of their catalog of performances

celeb star text: promotion

authorized and calculated image construction by stars, managers, etc. functions as an attempt to instill a specific understanding of stars within the audience

celeb star text: publicity

generated by the press, etc., outside of the direct control of the star's studios. danger of being portrayed negatively. ex. gossip columns, paparazzi.

celeb star text: audience practices

includes the general public, fans and anti-fans. they all contribute to our understanding of celebs. how we discuss them and material generated ab them like memes and fan sites.

relevant fantasy (Fiske)

celebrities can provide an empowering relevant fantasy capable of modeling alternative identities. they represent the interests and values of the audience, providing them with a model.

ex. Madonna as a model of confidence and self-love and female sexual empowerment. She defies the dominant ideology of what is expected of girls.

it can be connected to everyday life which makes it relevant and seem as though the ideal can be achieved.

authenticity and symbolic resources (Sobande)

celebs can provide "symbolic resources" aka relevant fantasies that reinforce or challenge dominant norms. But they can face backlash for doing so.

ex. Viola Davis is authentic as she takes her makeup off and challenges dominant beauty norms, providing the audience with a performance that represents a relatable experience and acts as a model

character types

a convention. a shorthand to help media makers communicate meaning quickly. we recognize who they are/ what they are like. intertextual constructions with commonly understood traits and behaviors. provide familiar to the unfamiliar.

stereotypes

reduce an entire group into a few simple characteristics.

- ex. if producer thinks that bc a character is gay, he must have certain traits

they emerge from inequalities of representational power and spread intertextually.

- stereotyped group lacks power to represent themselves, reach an audience, and provide an alternative.

power & representation (Croteau & Hoynes)

1. inclusion- who is represented and who is absent?

2. roles- what are the quality of the roles available?

3. control- who has the power to construct media and who is representing people?

the Other

anyone who is not like us. we are "normal" while the other is strange and different. they are presented in contrast to us so they are defined by their difference. we are ideal and the other is not. "us" v. "them"

creating the other

there is "splitting" (Hall) where boundaries are fixed between social groups. create diff and assign it worth.

first step: to establish an assigned difference and to create binary categories. reductive and rigid categories.

second step: present one as normal and other as abnormal. us vs them. mainstream vs outsiders.

media othering spreads through...

1. absence of representation- some people's stories are untold and they go unseen/unacknowledged. some identities are neglected while others are overrepresented.

2. stereotyping- perpetuating power imbalance. less quality and quantity of roles.

3. absence of self-representation- lack of representation behind the screen, lack of control, no opportunity to acknowledge themselves

"splitting" (Hall)

how institutions create difference and assign it worth. fixing boundaries between social groups.

multicultural representation

portrayal of cultural difference within groups. provides multiplicity of characters, realities, and contexts. many characters from a single group representing many different perspectives. shows diversity within groups. each character has less of a burden of representation.

four media sales logics

1. commodity

2. turnstile

3. "free" to consumer

4. microtransactions

commodity sales logic

commodities are paid in full by consumers. material object purchased by consumer. one time sale and consumer keeps the product. price tag covers all cost.

ex. buying a DVD

turnstile sales logic

sell access to content. consumer "pays for admission". you don't get to keep anything.

ex. movie theater, concerts, streaming tv

"free" to consumer sales logic

ad-supported. not really free because the audience is the product being sold to advertisers. advertisers pay cost of media in exchange for access to consumers/audience which is called impressions. audience pays in attention + time + increased product costs + personal data

microtransactions sales logic

lots of little payments which add up. initially free but you are encouraged to buy added perks. users determine how much they pay, there is no established price. payments from big spenders subsidize other users who underpay.

3 hybrid sales logics

1. combination

2. economies of scope

3. premium option

combination (hybrid sales logic)

multiple simultaneous logics.

ex. Hulu is turnstile because you pay a monthly fee but it's also ad-supported

economies of scope (hybrid sales logic)

selling a product across multiple revenue "windows" and logics. diff logics are used at diff times which are called windows.

ex. movie begins turnstile- in theater

then you can buy it on DVD which is commodity

then you can rent it- turnstile paying for access to it

then it's on an expanded cable channel- ad-supported

then it's on free broadcast TV- ad-supported

premium option (hybrid sales logic)

charging additional money for a premium version with additional perks

ex. turnstile add-ons: like Netflix premium. they pay more than those just paying for regular Netflix and have access to perks

ex. ad-free Spotify premium- they pay to listen to music uninterrupted

maximizing profit vs. market share

both used to measure success and manage risk.

maximizing profit: to sell as much as they can at the highest price that they can.

this is done by increasing revenue through economies of scope, increasing audience, and overproduction.

it's also done by minimizing expenses through economies of scale (cost of making a product decreases with the number of units sold)

it's also done by increasing market share: the percentage of the market held by a certain company. tracks how well a company does in comparison to its competitors

maximizing investment capital

the more money you invest in a project, the greater its likelihood of success.

this approach favors larger corporations with more available capital to spend. smaller companies don't have the resources.

sunk cost fallacy

the downside of maximizing investment capital is that the more money and time one puts into a project, the less likely they are to walk away from it. sometimes its better to cut a project loose.

the culture industry

The Frankfurt School used the term "the culture industry" to define the commercial producers of mass media. they argued that the culture industry keeps the public in a state of juvenile tastes and interests, it keeps them mindless. they believed mass produced entertainment alienates and stunts the working class, maintaining their social status. it discouraged them from thinking and allowed their rights to be taken away.

mass culture

industrialized media produced BY the culture industry FOR the masses. preserves power dynamics.

top-down process as mass media is produced by the culture industry on behalf of those in power but its intended for the masses and maintains the social hierarchy.

it reifies audiences, turns them into objects.

impacts of mass culture

1. conformity-

standardized media promotes conformity in tastes and thinking, transforming individuals into masses

2. the desire for mindless stimulation-

labor under capital is dull so they used media to escape, they are tired and want mindless stimulation

3. promotes artificial concerns-

we're tricked into focusing on media drama/gossip instead of politics and educating ourselves

4. leisure time becomes commodified-

we pay for the little time we have outside of work

5. no sense of community or collectivity (isolation)-

TFS says this is the goal- to keep us alone and part of the masses as it preserves our place

false consciousness

through this, those in power mislead people into thinking that the route to contentment comes from consumption rather than upward mobility (TFS). the culture industry presents happiness as one purchase away. your life will improve by purchasing something. its a distraction from the real problem.

two results: there is a fantasy of control that produces dissatisfaction in people and it de-skills, de-politicizes, and isolates overworked masses

mass media industrialization

media is manufactured like other industrialized commodities, through standardization, social cement, and pseudo-individualization

standardization

assembly-line production that uses the same codes, conventions, and formulas over and over again.

social cement

"psychic adjustment" to the needs of capitalism (makes us "emotionally obedient"). it helps us be happy little capitalist workers.

it has to do with ideology. its favorable for the dull and highly routinized labors under capitalism. we don't need to pay attention to the song, it promotes consumerism and hegemonic values of ideology. it's just enough diversion and escapism to keep people working.

pseudo-Individualization

same product is hidden by a superficial appearance of difference. it provides the illusion of choice.

ex. Ariana Grande and Billie Eilish are two different types of artists that promote different forms of femininity but are signed to the same overarching company so choosing to listen to one over the other doesn't actually make a difference

criticisms of the Frankfurt School

1. elitist defense of high culture-

suspicion & contempt for media enjoyed by the masses

2. sweeping generalizations-

makes generalizations about media production across industry and audiences. it loses specificity and the potential of competing agendas. assumes one giant media apparatus.

3. greater media choice today-

fragmentation and content abundance. there is an increased variety of media and diversity on purpose.

4. doesn't account for failure-

industry uses innovation to attract audiences with a mix of the familiar and unfamiliar. if audiences accepted anything, there would be no need for innovation.

5. doesn't investigate actual audience consumption-

makes an assumption rather than exploring how it's made and decoded

structuring social relations (Fiske)

Fiske uses the term, social structure relations, to describe the cultural value systems that we use to understand and position ourselves. involves the dominant ideology. there are social norms that guide individual social relationships, they influence our interactions but don't entirely determine them. these grant power to some groups over others.