Studied by 3 peopleWhat is the smallest unit capable of life?
A cell
Organize the levels of multicellular organisms from basic to complex: neurons, brain, human being, nerve tissue, CNS
Neuron, nerve tissue, brain, CNS, human being
What organelle is most of our skeletal muscle made of?
Mitochondria
What is epithelial tissue?
Covers body surfaces and lines body cavities to form boundaries, protect, absorb, and filter; make up glands
What is connective tissue?
Supports, protects, insulates, transports, and binds other tissues together
What is muscle tissue?
Made of tightly packed together cells that allow for contractions to cause movement
What is nervous tissue?
The main component of nervous system organs that control regulation and communication; mainly composed of neurons
What is a hypertonic solution?
Water solute is lower than the cell’s cytoplasm (low water concentration means high solute); shrivels
What is a hypotonic solution?
Water solute is higher than the cell’s cytoplasm; swells
What is a isotonic solution?
There are identical water solute within the cell’s cytoplasm and within the cell; stays the same
What would happen to a cell’s daughter cells that failed to go through DNA replication prior to mitosis?
Each daughter cell would contain half of the necessary chromosomes
What organelle specializes in the engulfment of harmful substances?
Lysosomes
What is the structure of the cell membrane?
Phospholipid bilayer
What two macromolecules are embedded in the cell membrane?
Carbohydrates which provide structure and proteins which aid transportation
What is a feedback loop?
A feedback loop helps maintain homeostasis in an organism. It uses the output of a system to signal a change in input so that a system response can be stabilized or amplified.
What is the difference between a positive feedback loop an a negative feedback loop?
Positive: output/product of a system intensifies the response Ex: Childbirth
Negative: output/product of a system causes a counter-response to return to a set point Ex: blood glucose regulation, body temperature, etc
Lateral?
Away from the mid-line of the body; on the outer side of
Medial?
Toward or at the mid-line of the body; on the inner side of
Superior?
Toward the upper part; above; cranial
Anterior?
Toward or at the front of the body; in front of; ventral
Posterior?
Toward or at the back of the body; behind; dorsal
Inferior?
Away from the upper part; toward the lower part; below; caudal
Cranial?
Toward the upper part; above; superior
Caudal?
Away from the upper part; toward the lower part; below; inferior
Distal?
Farther from the point where the limb attaches to the body trunk
Proximal?
Closer to the point where a limb attaches to the body's trunk
Superficial?
Toward or at the body surface; external
Deep?
Away from the body surface; internal
What is the axial skeleton?
Used for organ protection and consists of the trunk section of the body (chest, pelvis, shoulder, skull, spinal cord)
What is the appendicular skeleton?
Used for movement and consists of the limbs
What are cords of connective tissue that connect muscle to bone?
Tendon
What are the bones that make up the ankle called?
Tarsals
What leg bone aids and stabilizes the ankle joint but does not bear any weight?
Fibula
What is the prime mover in inspiration?
Diaphragm
What does it mean if a muscle is a prime mover?
It is the muscle responsible for producing a certain movement
What does it mean if a muscle is an antagoinst?
It opposes the prime mover or does the reverse of a certain movement; located on the opposite side; can regulate prime movers by adding resistance
What does it mean if a muscle is a stabilizer?
It supports and sometimes immobilizes other areas to increase the prime mover’s effectiveness
What is a hinge joint?
Only moves in one direction; allows angular movements like flexion and extension
What is a gliding joint?
AKA plane joint; allows for gliding movements
What is a pivot joint?
Allow rotations as well as twisting movements such as supination and pronation
What is a condylar joint?
Similar to a pedestal with a joint on top; allows movements like flexion and extension as well as adduction and abduction
What is a saddle joint?
Allows opposition movements as well as flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction
What is a ball and socket joint?
Lots of maneuverability; allows for rotational movements, abduction, adduction, flexion, and extension
Why is there an abundance of mitochondria in our muscle cells?
Muscles require high amount of energy/ATP
Why is the nervous system critical for muscle contraction?
The nervous system signals the muscle system to contract in response to varying stimuli causing contraction.
Explain why people who experience paralysis in their lower limbs have thinner, weaker bones in their legs and thighs.
This is due to the lack of use. If the bones are not being used, they thin out as they do not need to bear as much weight.
What are the differences between a female and male pelvis?
Female has a wider pubic arch, a flexible and shorter coccyx, and a large birth canal in the center
Male has a more narrow pubic arch, a stiff and longer coccyx, and a fairly narrow center area
What are the functions of the skeletal system?
Support, protection, movement, storage, hematopoiesis (blood cell formation), and hormone production
What are the steps in bone remodeling?
Osteocytes release chemical signals to tell osteoclasts to go to the damage
Osteocalsts release enzymes there that allow them to digest the calcium phosphate, putting the calcium and phosphate back into the blood (resorption)
Macrophages promote bone tissue remodeling
Osteoblasts come in and build new bone before they undergo apoptosis
What two things are needed in order for muscle contraction to occur?
Access for myosin to “attach” to actin and ATP
Summarize the sliding filament model.
The heads of the myosin filament grab onto the actin filament which pulls the actin to slide past the myosin. This results in more overlap of actin and myosin filaments and the shortening of a sarcomere
What organelle is responsible for releasing neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft?
Synaptic vesicles
What division is responsible for the “fight or flight” response?
Sympathetic Division
What division is responsible for controlling voluntary movements?
Somatic Division
What are mechanoreceptors?
Activated by mechanical force: vibration, pressure, stretch, and touch
What are photoreceptors?
Activated by light
What are thermoreceptors?
Activated by a change in temperature
What are chemoreceptors?
Activated by chemicals
What are nociceptors?
Activated by pain
What is the function of the adrenal glands?
Synthesizing and secreting mineralocorticoids like aldosterone; fight or flight functions; bodily stress response
What are the three types of stimuli that can trigger endocrine glands to make and release hormones?
Humoral, Neural, and Hormonal
What are humoral stimuli?
Hormone release caused by altered levels of critical ions or nutrients; simplest endocrine control
What are hormonal stimuli?
Hormone release caused by another hormone
What are neural stimuli?
Hormone release caused by neural input
What is the difference between a membrane receptor and an intracellular receptor?
Intracellular: inside the cell, usually receive lipid-soluble hormones
Membrane: On the cell membrane and usually receive water-soluble hormones
What are the parts of a neuron?
Soma, dendrites, axon, axon terminals, myelin sheath, nodes of Ranvier, and the nucleus
Function of cell body or soma and the nucleus
The life support containing the nucleus and most organelles (ex: a lot of mitochondria)
Function of dendrites.
The main receptor of signals; conducting region
Function of axon.
Generates and transmits nerve impulses; conducting region known as the nerve fiber
Function of myelin sheath.
Covers long axons to protect and electrically insulate them to increase the speed of nerve impulse transmission
Function of nodes of Ranvier.
Unmyelinated gaps in the myelin sheath that aid in increasing the velocity of nerve signal conduction
Function of axon terminals.
The end of the axon that releases neurotransmitters at a synapse when a nerve impulse is received; secretory region
What does “A” show?
Resting state
What does “B” show?
Depolarization
What does “C” show?
Repolarization
What does “D” show?
Hyperpolarization
What is 1?
Cornea
What is 2?
Aqueous humor
What is 3?
Pupil
What is 4?
Iris
What is 6?
Suspensory ligaments
What is 7?
Lens
What is 8?
Ciliary body
What is 9?
Sclera
What is 10?
Choroid layer
What is 11?
Retina
What is 12?
Fovea Centralis
What is 14?
Vitreous humor
What is 15?
Optic disc to optic nerve
Note 
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