PHI exam two

what is a descriptive statements

are claims that provide details about characteristics, qualities, or features of a subject, often based on observations or factual information without incorporating opinions or arguments.

what is a normative statement

is a sentence or claim that expresses a value judgment, opinion, or belief about how things should be, rather than describing how they actually are

EX. (“The government should do more to fight climate change.”

“It is wrong to lie to your friends.”)

subjectivism

is the philosophical view that truth, morality, or value judgments depend on an individual’s personal feelings, opinions, or perspectives, rather than being objective or universal.

cultural relativism

is the view that moral values and social norms are shaped by culture, and that we should understand and evaluate behavior based on the cultural context in which it occurs.

moral objectivism

is the belief that there are universal moral truths or principles that apply to all people, in all cultures, and at all times — regardless of individual opinions or cultural beliefs.

what is the cultural differences argument

Because cultures disagree about morality, there are no universal moral truths.
Different cultures have different moral beliefs. Therefore, there is no objective moral truth — right and wrong depend on culture

Why is the cultural differences argument invalid?

because it assumes that cultural disagreement about morality proves there is no objective moral truth — but disagreement alone doesn’t show that truth doesn’t exist.

what are the three consequences of cultural relativism?

Cultural relativism leads to the view that:

1. We can’t judge other societies.

2. We can’t judge our own society.

3. Moral progress is impossible.

What is the principle of utility? (state and explain)

the right action is the one that maximizes overall happiness or pleasure and minimizes overall pain or suffering. In other words, actions are morally good if they promote the greatest well-being for the greatest number of people.

Why classical utilitarianism is consequentialist, hedonist, and impartial?

• Consequentialism is the ethical view that the moral value of an action depends entirely on its outcomes.

• Utilitarians judge actions by their results, not by intentions, rules, or inherent qualities.

• Hedonism is the view that pleasure (happiness) is the ultimate good and pain is the ultimate evil.

• Bentham and Mill considered happiness or pleasure as the measure of utility.

• Impartiality means everyone’s happiness counts equally, regardless of who they are.

• The principle of “greatest happiness for the greatest number” requires weighing all individuals’ happiness equally.

Apply the principle of utility to the morality of marijuana use.

• Medical benefits: Relief from chronic pain, nausea, or anxiety.

• Recreational pleasure: Enjoyment, relaxation, and stress reduction.

• Social benefits: Bonding or cultural enjoyment in social settings.

• Economic benefits: Legal sales can boost the economy and fund public programs.  

whats the difference between consequentialism and deontology?

• Consequentialism: “The ends justify the means.”

• Deontology: “The means must follow the rules, regardless of the ends.”

What’s Kant’s understanding of the Good Will?

stand by i need to ask this question on tuesday. 

What's the difference between hypothetical and categorical imperatives?

• Hypothetical imperatives = optional, goal-dependent guidance.

• EX. “If you want to protect the environment, then you should recycle.”

• Categorical imperatives = absolute moral duties that everyone must follow, regardless of personal goals.

• EX. “You should recycle because it is your duty to avoid harming others.”

What's Kant’s first version of the moral law (the formula of universal law), and how he
applies it to his example of making a false promise?

What is passive euthanasia?

a form of ending a patient’s life indirectly by withholding or withdrawing medical treatment that would prolong life, rather than taking direct action to cause death.

what is active euthanasia?

is the deliberate and direct action taken to cause a patient’s death, usually to relieve unbearable suffering.

what is Voluntary euthanasia?

a type of euthanasia in which a mentally competent patient gives informed consent to end their life, usually to relieve unbearable suffering from a terminal or incurable illness.

what is non-voluntary euthanasia?

is euthanasia performed when the patient is unable to give informed consent—for example, because they are unconscious, in a coma, too young, or mentally incapable of making the decision.

What is involuntary euthanasia?

the act of ending a person’s life against their wishes or without their consent, even though they are capable of making a decision.

EX. A terminally ill patient refuses a lethal injection, but a doctor gives it anyway.

What is physician-assisted death

is when a doctor provides a patient with the means to end their own life, usually by prescribing a lethal dose of medication, but the patient performs the final act that causes death.

What is the Terri Schiavo case?

Terri Schiavo Case (1990s–2005, USA)

• Background:

  • Terri Schiavo suffered cardiac arrest in 1990, leaving her in a persistent vegetative state (PVS).

• Medical situation:

  • She could breathe and have basic reflexes but could not consciously interact with her environment.

• Controversy:

  • Husband: Argued that Terri would not have wanted prolonged life support and requested to withdraw her feeding tube (passive euthanasia).

  • Parents: Insisted on keeping her alive.

• Outcome:

  • After lengthy legal battles, the feeding tube was removed in 2005, and Terri Schiavo died.

• Significance:

  • Raised questions about end-of-life decisions, advance directives, and who should decide for incapacitated patients.

Whats the utilitarian view on the morality of active euthanasia?

Active euthanasia can be ethically justified under utilitarianism if it maximizes overall well-being and minimizes suffering, even though it involves directly causing death.

What is Dan Brock’s argument in favor of active euthanasia?

Dan Brock supports active euthanasia on the basis of:

1. Relief of suffering

2. Respect for autonomy

3. Moral equivalence to passive euthanasia

• Active euthanasia is morally permissible in certain circumstances:

  • When it is voluntary,

  • When the patient is competent and informed, and

  • When it relieves severe suffering without causing unjustified harm to others.

• He emphasizes patient-centered care and moral consistency with passive euthanasia.

Gay-Williams’ three arguments against active euthanasia?

Argument	Key Idea	Moral Concern
Religious/Theological	Life is sacred; only God decides death	Violates divine authority
Natural Law	Humans have a natural duty to preserve life	Active killing is unnatural
Slippery Slope	Permitting euthanasia can lead to abuse	Risk to vulnerable populations

What is James Rachels’ first (mercy)

The Mercy Argument

• Premise: Active euthanasia can relieve unbearable suffering more quickly than passive euthanasia.

• Key Idea: Allowing a patient to die sooner by a direct action can be more compassionate than letting them suffer unnecessarily while waiting for death to occur naturally.

• Example:

  • A patient is in severe pain from a terminal illness. Withdrawing life support (passive euthanasia) may take days or weeks

What are Murphy’s four conditions for rational fearing?

• Cognitively Accessible Threat

  • The object or event feared must be conceivable and understood by the person.

• Real or Probable Danger

  • There must be a realistic chance that the feared harm could occur.

• Appropriate Emotional Response

  • The intensity of fear should match the seriousness of the threat

• Significance of the Threat

  • The feared event must have genuine consequences that matter to the person.

What is the Brittany Maynard case?

Brittany Maynard Case (2014, USA)

• Background:

  • Brittany Maynard was a 29-year-old woman diagnosed with terminal brain cancer (glioblastoma).

• Medical situation:

  • She faced rapid decline, severe pain, and loss of autonomy.

• Decision:

  • Brittany chose to end her life through physician-assisted death under Oregon’s Death with Dignity Act.

• Outcome:

  • She moved to Oregon to legally access the lethal prescription and died on her terms in 2014.

• Significance:

  • Highlighted voluntary physician-assisted death, patient autonomy, and public debate on legalization.

James Rachels third (moral equivalency) arguments in favor of active euthanasia?

he Moral Equivalency Argument

• Premise: There is no significant moral difference between active and passive euthanasia.

• Key Idea:

  • Passive euthanasia (letting die) and active euthanasia (killing) often result in the same outcome—death of the patient.

  • If passive euthanasia is considered morally permissible, then active euthanasia should also be morally permissible, especially if it is more humane.

• Example:

  • Letting a patient die by withdrawing treatment vs. giving a lethal injection: the outcome is the same, but active euthanasia can prevent additional suffering.