AQA Psychology - Memory (Paper 1)

What is memory?

The ability to **preserve** and recover information

What is coding?

The way in which information is **stored**

What are the three ways in which information can be coded?

**Visually, semantically, or acoustically**

**Baddely** (1996) found that the STM and LTM are coded in which way?

STM - acoustically

LTM - semantically

What is capacity?

How much **data** can be **held** in a memory store

What is the capacity of the STM?

7 ± 2

What is the capacity of the LTM?

Potentially infinite

What is duration?

The length of time information can be remembered before being forgotten

What is the duration of LTM?

Infinite

What is the duration of STM?

Short - around **18 Seconds**

How is capacity tested?

### @@**Milner (1956) Digit Span**@@

⤷  Participants are to repeat back a string of numbers or letters in the same order and the number of digits/letters gradually increased, until they can’t recall it anymore

Give an example of **research** into the **Duration of STM**

### ==Peterson & Peterson (1959) trigram retention experiment== 

* Peterson and Peterson (1959) conducted an experiment on short-term memory duration.
* Participants were presented with **trigrams** (e.g WZT) and asked to recall them after different retention intervals (3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18)
* The longer the retention interval, the lower the recall accuracy.
* **Short-term memory has a limited duration of around** ***18 seconds***.

Give an example of **research** into the **coding of the LTM**

### ==**Baddely’s (1966) Cat/Mat Experiment**==

* Baddely's (1966) Cat/Mat experiment was a study on the effects of acoustic and semantic similarity on short-term memory.
* Participants were presented with lists of words that were either **acoustically similar** (e.g. cat, mat, sat) or **semantically similar** (e.g. big, large, huge).
* They were then asked to recall the words in the correct order.
* The results showed that participants had **more difficulty recalling acoustically similar words** than **semantically similar words**, suggesting that short-term memory is affected more by sound than meaning

Give an example of **research** into the **duration of LTM**

### ==Bahrick (1975)==

* He conducted a study on **high school yearbooks.**


* The study aimed to investigate the **long-term memory retention of high school graduates.**
* Participants were asked to recall the names and faces of their classmates from their yearbook.
* The results showed that participants were able to recognise their classmates' faces and names up to **34 years after graduation**.
* However, the **accuracy** of recall **declined over time**, with participants being more accurate in recognising **faces** than **names**

What is the **Multi Store Model** (MSM)?

==Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)== developed a store of memory that has 3 stores. It describes flow between three different stores: ***sensory register, long term memory and short term memory***

What is the **sensory register**?

Where **information from the senses** is stored but only for a **duration** of approximately **a half second** before it is forgotten

Draw the MSM

Describe the process of committing data to LTM, as per MSM

1. Information must first be **encoded** through **rehearsal** and **attention**
2. The information is then stored in the short-term memory store, where it can be further **rehearsed** to prevent **decay**.
3. If the information is deemed important, it is transferred to the long-term memory store through storage
4. Once the information is fully stored, it can be retrieved from long-term memory for later use
5. It may also be forgotten as the result of **retrieval failure** or **interference**

Give a **limitation** of the MSM

One limitation of the MSM is that research on the **duration** of short-term memory has **low ecological validity**. Peterson and Peterson (1959) used **meaningless stimuli** like trigrams such as 'XQF' that do not resemble items learned in real-life situations.

Give a **strength** of the MSM

Research supports the idea of **distinct STM and LTM systems** (e.g. brain-damaged case study patient KF’s STM was impaired following a motorcycle accident, but his LTM remained intact)

Give an **issue/debate** of the MSM

**Too simplistic**

↳ The MSM is too simple and it’s depiction of the STM has since been replaced by the WMM

What is the Working Memory Model?

**Baddely and Hitch (1974)** argued that the STM should be replaced by a Working Memory Model meaning information could be processed and interrelated and can flow from LTM to STM

Draw the WMM

What is the **Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad?**

* The Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad is a component of working memory.
* It processes visual and spatial information.
* It is responsible for mental imagery and relationships between objects.

What is the **Phonological Loop?**

A **temporary acoustic** strange system for auditory and verbal information - contains the **inner voice** and the **inner ear**

What is the **Central Executive?**

The central executive is a key part of working memory, per Baddeley and Hitch's model. It manages attention, coordinates data from the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad, and integrates info from long-term memory.

What is the **Phonological Store**?

Phonological Store is in the **working memory model** and **stores auditory info temporarily**. It's called "inner ear" and holds up to 2 seconds of info.

What is the **Episodic Buffer**?

Transfers information to the Long Term Memory

Give **research** support for the WMM

### ==Hitch and Baddeley (1975)==

* They conducted a **dual task experiment.**
* Participants completed a digit span task and a verbal reasoning task simultaneously.
* The difficulty of the verbal reasoning task was varied by changing the length and complexity of the sentences.
* Results showed that as the verbal reasoning task became more difficult, participants made more errors on the digit span task.
* ==**This supports the working memory model.**==
* **The working memory model suggests that both tasks were competing for the same cognitive resources.**

Give **research** criticism for the WMM

### @@**Paulescu (1993)**@@

* Criticized the Working Memory Model (WMM) for not accounting for the prefrontal cortex's role in working memory.


* He argued that the prefrontal cortex is responsible for executive functions like attentional control and information manipulation.
* There is alsio no evidence for the Central Executive or Episodic buffer
* Paulescu's criticisms highlight limitations of the WMM

Give an **issue** with the working memory model

Much of the research into WMM is based on lab experiments which mean that they **lack ecological validity**

What is **Episodic Memory?**

Memory about **personal experiences** - @@declarative@@

ex. *first day of school*

What is **Semantic Memory**?

Knowledge about the world shared by **everyone** - ==declarative==

ex. *The Captal of England is London*

What is **Prodecural Memory**?

Procedural memory is concerned with **skills** - ==undeclarative (unable to be explained)==

ex. *Tying a shoelace*

How do **Brain scans** support evidence for types of LTM?

LTM is active at different point of the brain and Episodic memory is associated with **activity in the frontal lobe**

How does the case study of **Clive Wearing** support evidence for types of LTM?

He has no semantic memory; he remembers **how to play the piano** (procedural) and **recognises his wife** (episodic)

How does the case study of **HM** support evidence for types of LTM?

He has no episodic and procedural memory but could do hand-eye co-ordination skills such as mirror drawing

Give an **Issue/debate** with types of long term memory

**Using reserach from patients w/ brain damage**

↳ Its difficult to be cerain of which part of the brain has been affected after the person has died + damage to a part of the brain doesn’t mean that part is responsible for the behaviour

What are the **two** key factors in **explanations of forgetting**?

**Accessibility** - whether information can be retrieved

**Availability** - whether the information has been stored in the first place

What is **interference**?

When **one memory** disrupts the ability to **recall another**

What is **retroactive interference**?

When **new information** affects the ability to store **recall new information**

Give an example of **retroactive interference**

When you learn the lyrics to a new song and forget the old one

What is **proactive interference?**

When **old information** affects the ability to **recall new information**

Give an example of **proactive interference**

Calling a current partner by a former partner’s name

Give **research support** for **Interference**

### @@**McGeoch and McDonald (1931)**@@

↳ *Lab Experiment into interference*

* Participants were split into **three** groups.
* Groups had to remember a list of words
* Group 1 had to learn just adj. list 1, Group 2 had to learn a adj. list and no. group, and recall 1. Group three had to recall 1,2 and 3
* **Group 1 had 70% accurate recall and** Group 3 the least
* **Similarity between old and new information exacerbates interference.**

Give **limitations** of **interference** as an explanation of forgetting

* Lab experiment research means **low ecological validity**
* Too simplistic - **doesn’t tell us about cognitive processes**

What is **retrieval failure**?

When the **memory is available** but not **accessible** until the appropriate cue is presented

What is a **cue?**

**Information trigger** that **allows us access to a memory.** They may be **external** or **internal** (personal, mood etc)

What is **Context Dependent Forgetting**?

Forgetting due to **a lack of the correct environmental** (or external) **cues**

Give **research support** for context dependent forgetting

### @@**Godden and Baddely's (1975)**@@

* Godden and Baddeley's (1975) experiment studied context-dependent memory.
* Divers learned and recalled a list of words on land or underwater.
* Participants who learned and recalled in the same environment had better recall.
* **Memory is context-dependent and the environment can affect recall**

What is **State Dependent Forgetting**?

Forgetting due to a **lack of internal cues**

Give an example of **research support** for **State Dependent Forgetting**

### @@**Goodwin et al. (1969)**@@

* A study on male volunteers to investigate memory recall when drunk or sober.
* Participants were asked to remember lists of words when they were either drunk or sober.
* After 24 hours, participants were asked to recall the words in either a drunk or sober state.
* The results showed that **words learned when drunk were better recalled when drunk, and words learned when sober were better recalled when sober**
* The study provides evidence for **state-dependent forgetting**, where the physical and mental state of an individual at the time of learning affects their ability to recall information later on.

Give a **strength** of **retrieval failure** as an explanation of forgetting

**Real World Application**

↳ **Abernathy (1940)** found that students performed **better** if they took exams in the **same place** they learned the information

Give a **limitation** of **retrieval failure** as an explanation of forgetting

==**Limited Ecological Validity**==

↳ A majority of studies are lab experiments which do not reflect the way people actually learn

What is **eyewitness testimony**?

The **evidence** provided in court by a person who **witnessed a crime** regarding the perpetrator of the crime

What are **Leading Questions**?

A question that is **phrased** in a way that makes the participants **more likely** to give the **desired answer**

What is **Misleading Information**?

**Supplying information** that may lead a witness’ memory of an incident **to be altered**

What is **post-event discussion**?

A discussion between co-witnesses or an interviewer *after* an incident - contaminate a memory

Give an **example** of **research** into **leading questions**

### @@**Loftus and Palmer's (1974)**@@

* A study examined the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.


* Participants watched a video of a car accident and were asked about the speed of the cars.
* The wording of the question influenced participants' estimates.
* Those asked about the cars "**smashing**" gave higher estimates than those asked about the cars "**hitting**".
* The study shows that **leading questions can distort eyewitness testimony**.

Evaluate **Loftus and Palmer’s research** into **Accuracy of Eye-witness testimony**

* **Low Ecological Validity**
* **Only University students - small sample pod**

Give an **example** of **research** into **misleading information**

### @@**Loftus & Palmer (1975)**@@

* Loftus and Palmer’’ (1975) study examined the impact of misleading information on eyewitness testimony.
* Participants watched a video of a car accident and were asked whether they saw **broken glass**.
* Some were given misleading information about the speed of the cars involved.
* Those who had been told the car was going **faster** were more likely to say there was **broken glass** whereas those who’d believed it was slower said there was not.
* The study shows how misleading information can distort eyewitness testimony.

What is **Yerkes-Dodson Inverted U Hypothesis?**

* Anxiety has a **negative effect** on the accuracy of **EWT** at **very high or very low levels**
* **Moderate levels** of anxiety are actually **beneficial** to accuracy of recall as adrenaline can **sharpen senses** and **create clearer memories**

What is the **effect** of **anxiety** on **EWT**?

Crimes tend to cause **high levels of anxiety** which inn turn can cause **memories to distort**

What are the the **negative effects of anxiety?**

* Low confidence
* Poorer memory
* ‘Weapon Effect’

What are the the **positive effects of anxiety?**

* More attention to detail
* More aware of surroundings

What is **The Weapon Effect?**

When a weapon is present, it causes **high levels of anxiety** and **poorer recall** as the focus is on the weapon

Outline research into **The Weapon Effect**

### @@**Johnson and Scott (1976)**@@

* Their Weapon Effect Experiment demonstrated that the presence of a weapon can **impair** eyewitness memory.
* Participants who saw a man holding a bloody knife were less accurate in identifying him and recalled fewer details.
* Those who saw the man holding a pen had **better accuracy** in identifying him and recalled more details.
* **The study suggests that the presence of a weapon can distract and overwhelm an eyewitness's attention, leading to poorer memory recall.**

What is the **Cognitive Interview?**

**Geiselman and colleagues (1985)** identified that standard police interviews could negatively affect eye witnesses’ recall accuracy of crimes so developed a new interview

What are the **4 main techniques used in the cognitive interview?**

1. Change the order of events
2. Change the perspective - victims POV
3. Reinstatement of context - **return to the place**
4. Report Everything - recall even the most trivial details

Give a **limitation of The Cognitive Interview**

**Individual Differences**

↳ Loftus et al. found that **old people** tend to be worse at **EWT** than **middle aged people**

Give an example of research into the use of the **Cognitive Interview**

* Fisher and Geiselman (1989) studied the Cognitive Interview technique.
* The technique improved eyewitness testimony accuracy.
* Open-ended questions, mental reinstatement of context, and changing the order of recall helped retrieve more information.
* The cognitive interviewers obtained **47%** more information comoared to no inc. from the Standard interview