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What is memory?
The ability to preserve and recover information
What is coding?
The way in which information is stored
What are the three ways in which information can be coded?
Visually, semantically, or acoustically
Baddely (1996) found that the STM and LTM are coded in which way?
STM - acoustically
LTM - semantically
What is capacity?
How much data can be held in a memory store
What is the capacity of the STM?
7 ± 2
What is the capacity of the LTM?
Potentially infinite
What is duration?
The length of time information can be remembered before being forgotten
What is the duration of LTM?
Infinite
What is the duration of STM?
Short - around 18 Seconds
How is capacity tested?
⤷ Participants are to repeat back a string of numbers or letters in the same order and the number of digits/letters gradually increased, until they can’t recall it anymore
Give an example of research into the Duration of STM
Peterson and Peterson (1959) conducted an experiment on short-term memory duration.
Participants were presented with trigrams (e.g WZT) and asked to recall them after different retention intervals (3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18)
The longer the retention interval, the lower the recall accuracy.
Short-term memory has a limited duration of around 18 seconds.
Give an example of research into the coding of the LTM
Baddely's (1966) Cat/Mat experiment was a study on the effects of acoustic and semantic similarity on short-term memory.
Participants were presented with lists of words that were either acoustically similar (e.g. cat, mat, sat) or semantically similar (e.g. big, large, huge).
They were then asked to recall the words in the correct order.
The results showed that participants had more difficulty recalling acoustically similar words than semantically similar words, suggesting that short-term memory is affected more by sound than meaning
Give an example of research into the duration of LTM
He conducted a study on high school yearbooks.
The study aimed to investigate the long-term memory retention of high school graduates.
Participants were asked to recall the names and faces of their classmates from their yearbook.
The results showed that participants were able to recognise their classmates' faces and names up to 34 years after graduation.
However, the accuracy of recall declined over time, with participants being more accurate in recognising faces than names
What is the Multi Store Model (MSM)?
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) developed a store of memory that has 3 stores. It describes flow between three different stores: sensory register, long term memory and short term memory
What is the sensory register?
Where information from the senses is stored but only for a duration of approximately a half second before it is forgotten
Draw the MSM
Describe the process of committing data to LTM, as per MSM
Information must first be encoded through rehearsal and attention
The information is then stored in the short-term memory store, where it can be further rehearsed to prevent decay.
If the information is deemed important, it is transferred to the long-term memory store through storage
Once the information is fully stored, it can be retrieved from long-term memory for later use
It may also be forgotten as the result of retrieval failure or interference
Give a limitation of the MSM
One limitation of the MSM is that research on the duration of short-term memory has low ecological validity. Peterson and Peterson (1959) used meaningless stimuli like trigrams such as 'XQF' that do not resemble items learned in real-life situations.
Give a strength of the MSM
Research supports the idea of distinct STM and LTM systems (e.g. brain-damaged case study patient KF’s STM was impaired following a motorcycle accident, but his LTM remained intact)
Give an issue/debate of the MSM
Too simplistic
↳ The MSM is too simple and it’s depiction of the STM has since been replaced by the WMM
What is the Working Memory Model?
Baddely and Hitch (1974) argued that the STM should be replaced by a Working Memory Model meaning information could be processed and interrelated and can flow from LTM to STM
Draw the WMM
What is the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad?
The Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad is a component of working memory.
It processes visual and spatial information.
It is responsible for mental imagery and relationships between objects.
What is the Phonological Loop?
A temporary acoustic strange system for auditory and verbal information - contains the inner voice and the inner ear
What is the Central Executive?
The central executive is a key part of working memory, per Baddeley and Hitch's model. It manages attention, coordinates data from the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad, and integrates info from long-term memory.
What is the Phonological Store?
Phonological Store is in the working memory model and stores auditory info temporarily. It's called "inner ear" and holds up to 2 seconds of info.
What is the Episodic Buffer?
Transfers information to the Long Term Memory
Give research support for the WMM
They conducted a dual task experiment.
Participants completed a digit span task and a verbal reasoning task simultaneously.
The difficulty of the verbal reasoning task was varied by changing the length and complexity of the sentences.
Results showed that as the verbal reasoning task became more difficult, participants made more errors on the digit span task.
This supports the working memory model.
The working memory model suggests that both tasks were competing for the same cognitive resources.
Give research criticism for the WMM
Criticized the Working Memory Model (WMM) for not accounting for the prefrontal cortex's role in working memory.
He argued that the prefrontal cortex is responsible for executive functions like attentional control and information manipulation.
There is alsio no evidence for the Central Executive or Episodic buffer
Paulescu's criticisms highlight limitations of the WMM
Give an issue with the working memory model
Much of the research into WMM is based on lab experiments which mean that they lack ecological validity
What is Episodic Memory?
Memory about personal experiences - declarative
ex. first day of school
What is Semantic Memory?
Knowledge about the world shared by everyone - declarative
ex. The Captal of England is London
What is Prodecural Memory?
Procedural memory is concerned with skills - undeclarative (unable to be explained)
ex. Tying a shoelace
How do Brain scans support evidence for types of LTM?
LTM is active at different point of the brain and Episodic memory is associated with activity in the frontal lobe
How does the case study of Clive Wearing support evidence for types of LTM?
He has no semantic memory; he remembers how to play the piano (procedural) and recognises his wife (episodic)
How does the case study of HM support evidence for types of LTM?
He has no episodic and procedural memory but could do hand-eye co-ordination skills such as mirror drawing
Give an Issue/debate with types of long term memory
Using reserach from patients w/ brain damage
↳ Its difficult to be cerain of which part of the brain has been affected after the person has died + damage to a part of the brain doesn’t mean that part is responsible for the behaviour
What are the two key factors in explanations of forgetting?
Accessibility - whether information can be retrieved
Availability - whether the information has been stored in the first place
What is interference?
When one memory disrupts the ability to recall another
What is retroactive interference?
When new information affects the ability to store recall new information
Give an example of retroactive interference
When you learn the lyrics to a new song and forget the old one
What is proactive interference?
When old information affects the ability to recall new information
Give an example of proactive interference
Calling a current partner by a former partner’s name
Give research support for Interference
↳ Lab Experiment into interference
Participants were split into three groups.
Groups had to remember a list of words
Group 1 had to learn just adj. list 1, Group 2 had to learn a adj. list and no. group, and recall 1. Group three had to recall 1,2 and 3
Group 1 had 70% accurate recall and Group 3 the least
Similarity between old and new information exacerbates interference.
Give limitations of interference as an explanation of forgetting
Lab experiment research means low ecological validity
Too simplistic - doesn’t tell us about cognitive processes
What is retrieval failure?
When the memory is available but not accessible until the appropriate cue is presented
What is a cue?
Information trigger that allows us access to a memory. They may be external or internal (personal, mood etc)
What is Context Dependent Forgetting?
Forgetting due to a lack of the correct environmental (or external) cues
Give research support for context dependent forgetting
Godden and Baddeley's (1975) experiment studied context-dependent memory.
Divers learned and recalled a list of words on land or underwater.
Participants who learned and recalled in the same environment had better recall.
Memory is context-dependent and the environment can affect recall
What is State Dependent Forgetting?
Forgetting due to a lack of internal cues
Give an example of research support for State Dependent Forgetting
A study on male volunteers to investigate memory recall when drunk or sober.
Participants were asked to remember lists of words when they were either drunk or sober.
After 24 hours, participants were asked to recall the words in either a drunk or sober state.
The results showed that words learned when drunk were better recalled when drunk, and words learned when sober were better recalled when sober
The study provides evidence for state-dependent forgetting, where the physical and mental state of an individual at the time of learning affects their ability to recall information later on.
Give a strength of retrieval failure as an explanation of forgetting
Real World Application
↳ Abernathy (1940) found that students performed better if they took exams in the same place they learned the information
Give a limitation of retrieval failure as an explanation of forgetting
Limited Ecological Validity
↳ A majority of studies are lab experiments which do not reflect the way people actually learn
What is eyewitness testimony?
The evidence provided in court by a person who witnessed a crime regarding the perpetrator of the crime
What are Leading Questions?
A question that is phrased in a way that makes the participants more likely to give the desired answer
What is Misleading Information?
Supplying information that may lead a witness’ memory of an incident to be altered
What is post-event discussion?
A discussion between co-witnesses or an interviewer after an incident - contaminate a memory
Give an example of research into leading questions
A study examined the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.
Participants watched a video of a car accident and were asked about the speed of the cars.
The wording of the question influenced participants' estimates.
Those asked about the cars "smashing" gave higher estimates than those asked about the cars "hitting".
The study shows that leading questions can distort eyewitness testimony.
Evaluate Loftus and Palmer’s research into Accuracy of Eye-witness testimony
Low Ecological Validity
Only University students - small sample pod
Give an example of research into misleading information
Loftus and Palmer’’ (1975) study examined the impact of misleading information on eyewitness testimony.
Participants watched a video of a car accident and were asked whether they saw broken glass.
Some were given misleading information about the speed of the cars involved.
Those who had been told the car was going faster were more likely to say there was broken glass whereas those who’d believed it was slower said there was not.
The study shows how misleading information can distort eyewitness testimony.
What is Yerkes-Dodson Inverted U Hypothesis?
Anxiety has a negative effect on the accuracy of EWT at very high or very low levels
Moderate levels of anxiety are actually beneficial to accuracy of recall as adrenaline can sharpen senses and create clearer memories
What is the effect of anxiety on EWT?
Crimes tend to cause high levels of anxiety which inn turn can cause memories to distort
What are the the negative effects of anxiety?
Low confidence
Poorer memory
‘Weapon Effect’
What are the the positive effects of anxiety?
More attention to detail
More aware of surroundings
What is The Weapon Effect?
When a weapon is present, it causes high levels of anxiety and poorer recall as the focus is on the weapon
Outline research into The Weapon Effect
Their Weapon Effect Experiment demonstrated that the presence of a weapon can impair eyewitness memory.
Participants who saw a man holding a bloody knife were less accurate in identifying him and recalled fewer details.
Those who saw the man holding a pen had better accuracy in identifying him and recalled more details.
The study suggests that the presence of a weapon can distract and overwhelm an eyewitness's attention, leading to poorer memory recall.
What is the Cognitive Interview?
Geiselman and colleagues (1985) identified that standard police interviews could negatively affect eye witnesses’ recall accuracy of crimes so developed a new interview
What are the 4 main techniques used in the cognitive interview?
Change the order of events
Change the perspective - victims POV
Reinstatement of context - return to the place
Report Everything - recall even the most trivial details
Give a limitation of The Cognitive Interview
Individual Differences
↳ Loftus et al. found that old people tend to be worse at EWT than middle aged people
Give an example of research into the use of the Cognitive Interview
Fisher and Geiselman (1989) studied the Cognitive Interview technique.
The technique improved eyewitness testimony accuracy.
Open-ended questions, mental reinstatement of context, and changing the order of recall helped retrieve more information.
The cognitive interviewers obtained 47% more information comoared to no inc. from the Standard interview
Note 
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