Comprehensive Guide to Sampling, Research Design, and Data Collection Methods in Social Science

What is the primary goal of probability sampling?

To support generalizability by ensuring each unit has a known, non-zero chance of selection, allowing for representative estimates.

What is the difference between a population and a sample?

The population is the total group you want to generalize to, while the sample is the subset you actually study.

What is a sampling frame?

The accessible list or portion of the population from which the sample is actually drawn.

What is coverage error?

An error that occurs when the sampling frame does not perfectly match the target population.

What is nonresponse bias?

Bias occurring when selected individuals do not respond and those who do respond differ systematically from those who do not.

How do sampling error and bias differ?

Sampling error is random variation that decreases with larger sample sizes, while bias is systematic distortion that does not disappear with larger samples.

What is convenience sampling?

A nonprobability method where participants are chosen based on ease of access.

What is purposive or judgmental sampling?

A nonprobability method where the researcher selects cases on purpose because they are the most informative.

What is snowball sampling?

A chain-referral method where existing participants refer the researcher to additional participants.

When is snowball sampling most useful?

For hidden or hard-to-reach populations.

What is quota sampling?

A nonprobability method where the researcher fills specific subgroup quotas without using random selection.

What are the two requirements for probability sampling?

Each unit must have a known, non-zero chance of selection, and there must be a random selection step.

What is simple random sampling (SRS)?

A method where every unit in the population has an equal chance of being selected, often using a random number generator.

What is systematic sampling?

A method involving a random start followed by selecting every kth unit from a list.

What is the main risk of systematic sampling?

Periodicity risk, where a pattern in the ordered list matches the sampling interval and biases the results.

What is stratified sampling?

A method where the population is divided into subgroups (strata) and random samples are taken within each subgroup.

What is the key difference between stratified and cluster sampling?

Stratified sampling draws from every subgroup, while cluster sampling selects only some groups and then samples within those selected clusters.

What is multistage cluster sampling?

A method of sampling clusters in successive stages, such as region to city to school to student.

Why do researchers use oversampling?

To ensure there are enough cases within a small subgroup to allow for meaningful analysis and comparison.

What is the purpose of weighting in research?

To correct for unequal probabilities of selection so that overall estimates accurately reflect the population structure.

What three things should you identify first when reading a research study?

The research question/hypothesis, the design type, and the sampling strategy.

Why should 'Results' and 'Discussion' be kept separate?

Results report findings, while the Discussion interprets meaning and limitations; mixing them confuses evidence with interpretation.

What is operationalization?

The process of defining how abstract concepts will be measured using specific indicators or variables.

What does the acronym IMRaD stand for in research reports?

Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion.

What components must be included in the Methods section?

Participants/sample, measures/materials, procedure, and analysis plan.

What is the primary purpose of the Methods section in a research paper?

To provide enough detail regarding participants, measures, procedure, and analysis for the study to be replicated.

What is the primary focus of the Results section?

Presenting findings and data outcomes with minimal interpretation.

What is the primary focus of the Discussion section?

Interpreting results, discussing implications, acknowledging limitations, and suggesting future research.

In experimental design notation, what do R, X, and O represent?

R = random assignment, X = treatment/experimental condition, O = observation/measurement of the dependent variable.

What is the primary purpose of the Solomon four-group design?

To detect and control for testing effects caused by the interaction between pretesting and the treatment.

Why is random assignment essential in experimental research?

It aims to make groups equivalent so that differences in outcomes can be attributed to the manipulation rather than preexisting differences.

What internal validity threat is most likely when random assignment is absent?

Selection threat, where groups are unequal at baseline.

Define internal validity.

The extent to which the treatment (X) actually caused the observed effect within the experiment.

What is the difference between a 'history' threat and a 'maturation' threat to internal validity?

History refers to outside events occurring between measurements, while maturation refers to changes within participants due to the passage of time (e.g., fatigue, development).

What does an 'instrumentation' threat involve?

Changes in measurement across time, observers, or conditions, including observer bias or fatigue.

How does participant attrition (mortality) threaten internal validity?

It can destroy group equivalence and bias comparisons by causing non-random loss of participants.

What distinguishes a quasi-experimental design from a true experiment?

Quasi-experimental designs resemble experiments but lack random assignment, leading to internal validity issues.

What are the five categories of information measured by survey questions?

Behaviour, attitudes/beliefs/opinions, sociodemographic characteristics, intentions, and classification.

What are the two fundamental rules for creating response options in surveys?

They must be mutually exclusive and exhaustive, and they must be clear and unambiguous.

What is the difference between reliability and validity in measurement?

Reliability is the consistency or stability of a measure, while validity is whether the measure captures what it is supposed to capture.

Can a measure be reliable but not valid?

Yes, a measure can consistently yield the same result while still measuring the wrong construct.

When is an ANOVA typically used?

When examining the relationship between one categorical variable and one quantitative variable.

In the context of ANOVA, what does a p-value of < .001 indicate?

The relationship or group difference is statistically significant and unlikely to be due to chance.

What is a 'gatekeeper' in qualitative field research?

A person who controls access to a specific group or setting.

What is 'rapport' in the context of field research?

The process of building trust and confidence with research participants.

What is the role of a 'key informant'?

An individual who is involved and available to provide the researcher with insider understanding of the group.

What is the 'insider vs. outsider' tradeoff in field research?

Insiders have better access but risk emotional attachment and bias; outsiders maintain more objectivity but often have weaker access.

What types of data are typically collected in field research?

Detailed observations, field notes about surroundings, and audio/video/diagrams.

Why might two researchers reach different conclusions when studying the same field setting?

Interpretation is shaped by the researcher's own values, history, social differences, and specific choices regarding participation and observation.